Lake Tauca

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Lake Tauca
Lake Pocoyu
Primary inflows
Glacial meltwater
Desaguadero River, Río Grande de Lipez, Lauca River
Primary outflowsPotentially Pilcomayo River
Basin countriesBolivia, Chile, Peru
Surface area48,000–80,000 km2 (19,000–31,000 sq mi)
Average depth100 m (330 ft)
Max. depth142 m (466 ft)
Water volume1,200–3,810 km3 (290–910 cu mi)
Salinity20–90 g/L (0.00072–0.00325 lb/cu in)
Surface elevation3,660–3,770 m (12,010–12,370 ft)
Max. temperature10 °C (50 °F)
Min. temperature2 °C (36 °F)

Lake Tauca is a

Western Cordillera, covering an estimated 48,000 to 80,000 square kilometres (19,000 to 31,000 sq mi) of the basins of present-day Lake Poopó and the Salars of Uyuni, Coipasa and adjacent basins. Water levels varied, possibly reaching 3,800 metres (12,500 ft) in altitude. The lake was saline. The lake received water from Lake Titicaca, but whether this contributed most of Tauca's water or only a small amount is controversial; the quantity was sufficient to influence the local climate and depress the underlying terrain with its weight. Diatoms, plants and animals developed in the lake, sometimes forming reef knolls
.

The duration of Lake Tauca's existence is uncertain. Research in 2011 indicated that the rise in lake levels began 18,500

Bølling-Allerød
climate oscillation, left the salt deposits of Salar de Uyuni.

Lake Tauca is one of several ancient lakes which formed in the Altiplano. Other known lakes are Lake Escara, Ouki, Salinas, Minchin, Inca Huasi and Sajsi, in addition to several water-level rises of Lake Titicaca. The identity of these lakes is controversial; Sajsi is often considered part of Lake Tauca, and the lake is frequently divided into an earlier (Ticaña) and a later (Coipasa) phase.

The formation of Lake Tauca depended on a reduction in air temperature over the Altiplano and an increase in precipitation, which may have been caused by shifts in the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and increased easterly winds. It was originally supposed that glacial melting might have filled Lake Tauca, but the quantity of water would not have been sufficient to fill the whole lake. The lake was accompanied by glacial advance, noticeable at Cerro Azanaques and Tunupa. Elsewhere in South America, water levels and glaciers also expanded during the Lake Tauca phase.

Description

World map, with the Altiplano in red
The Altiplano, in red
The Altiplano and extent of Lake Tauca, clearly visible in the topography of the central Andes

Overview

Lake Tauca existed on the Altiplano, a high plateau with an average altitude of 3,800 to 4,000 metres (12,500 to 13,100 ft),

Central Volcanic Zone and the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex are in the Cordillera Occidental.[14]

Lake Tauca was one of many lakes which formed around the world during glacial epochs; others include the

Salar de Coipasa, covering 2,500 square kilometres (970 sq mi) at an altitude of 3,656 metres (11,995 ft).[16] Lake Titicaca and the southern salt flats are two separate water basins, connected by the Rio Desaguadero when Titicaca is high enough.[8] The theory that the Altiplano was formerly covered by lakes was first proposed by J. Minchin in 1882.[17] The formation of such lakes usually, but not always, coincided with lower temperatures.[18][19] No evidence has been found for lake expansions in the Altiplano region below an altitude of 3,500 metres (11,500 ft).[20]

Geography

The basin of Lake Poopó (upper right), Salar de Uyuni (white beneath centre) and Salar de Coipasa (white left of centre)

Larger than Lake Titicaca,

Lake Poopo, Salar de Uyuni and Salar de Coipasa.[23] Lake Tauca was the largest paleolake in the Altiplano[3] in the last 120,000 years at least,[24] and comparable to present-day Lake Michigan.[25]
Several different estimates for its surface area exist:

Surface
(1000 km²) 		Surface
(1000 sq mi)		 Details Date of
estimate
43 17 1981[26]
80 31 Possibly triggered by a large spillover from Lake Titicaca,[27] 13,000 years ago 1995[28]
33–60 13–23 2006[29]
50 19 2009[15]
52 20 At a 3,775 m (12,385 ft) water level 2011[8]
48 19 Around 12,000 BP, and extending towards the Lípez area 2012[30]
55 21 2013[3]
56.7 21.9 2013[31]
Estimates of lake levels Date of
estimate
3,760 m (12,340 ft) 2002,[32] 1995[33]
3,770 m (12,370 ft) 2013[3]
3,780 m (12,400 ft) 2001,[34] 2006[35]
3,790 m (12,430 ft) 2013[31]
Almost 3,800 m (12,500 ft) 2005[36]

Water depths reached 110–120 metres (360–390 ft).

isostatic rebound of the land covered by the lake.[26][41] The original 1978 research on the Tauca phase postulated its shoreline at 3,720 metres (12,200 ft).[42] Of the previous lake cycles in the area, only the Ouki cycle appears to have exceeded that altitude.[43]

A later phase in lake levels (known as the Ticaña phase) was lower, at 3,657 metres (11,998 ft);[33] the drop from Tauca was abrupt. The late phase of Lake Tauca, Coipasa, had a water level of 3,660 metres (12,010 ft)[44] or 3,700 metres (12,100 ft)[45] and covered an area of about 32,000 square kilometres (12,000 sq mi). Transitions between lake cycles occurred in about one thousand years.[37]

Lake Tauca was the largest lake on the Altiplano during the last 100,000[36]-130,000 years.[46] Although the preceding paleolake (Minchin) was probably shallower,[36][47] there is disagreement about the methods used to ascertain water depth.[48] Some consider Minchin the larger lake;[49] a 1985 paper estimated its size at 63,000 square kilometres (24,000 sq mi), compared with Tauca's 43,000 square kilometres (17,000 sq mi).[50] Confusion may have resulted from the incorrect attribution of Tauca's shorelines to Lake Minchin;[51] a shoreline at 3,760 metres (12,340 ft) formerly attributed to Lake Minchin was dated to the Tauca phase at 13,790 BP.[52] The theory that Tauca is the largest lake follows a deepening trend in the southern Altiplano paleolakes which contrasts with a decreasing trend in the level of Lake Titicaca during the Pleistocene. This pattern probably occurred because the threshold between the two basins progressively eroded, allowing water from Titicaca to flow into the southern Altiplano.[39] The lakes left erosional benches, fan deltas (where the lakes interacted with ice) and lake-sediment deposits,[53] and eroded into moraines.[54] The ridge that separates the Salar de Uyuni and Salar de Coipasa was a peninsula in the lake; San Agustín, San Cristóbal and Colcha formed islands.[55][56]

The lake and its predecessors (such as Lake Minchin) formed in the area currently occupied by salt flats such as the Salar de Uyuni, Salar de Coipasa,

Oruro and Uyuni are located in areas flooded by Lake Tauca.[60] Salar de Ascotán may[61][55] or may not have been part of Lake Tauca.[59] The submergence of a large part of the Altiplano under Lake Tauca reduced the production of dust there and its supply to Patagonia,[62] but "restocked" the sediments and thus increased dust supply once Lake Tauca dried up.[63][64] The terrain above 3,800 metres (12,500 ft) was affected by glaciation.[9] In the Coipasa basin, a major debris avalanche from the Tata Sabaya volcano rolled over terraces left by Lake Tauca.[65]

  • Salar de Ascotan
    Salar de Ascotan
  • Salar de Carcote
    Salar de Carcote
  • The course of the Lauca River
    The course of the Lauca River
  • Tata Sabaya with the landslide to the left
    Tata Sabaya with the landslide to the left
  • 3D geography of Salar de Uyuni, remainder of Lake Tauca
    3D geography of Salar de Uyuni, remainder of Lake Tauca

Hydrology

Altiplano drainage basin overlaid on present Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina
Drainage basin of the Altiplano

At a water level of 3,720 metres (12,200 ft), the total volume of the lake has been estimated to be 1,200 cubic kilometres (290 cu mi)[66] to 3,810 cubic kilometres (910 cu mi) at a level of 3,760 metres (12,340 ft).[67] Such volumes could have been reached in centuries.[68] The quantity of water was sufficient to depress the underlying bedrock, which rebounded after the lake disappeared; this has resulted in altitude differences of 10 to 20 metres (33 to 66 ft).[41] Based on oxygen-18 data in lake carbonates, water temperatures ranged from 2 to 10 °C (36 to 50 °F)[69] or 7.5 ± 2.5 °C (45.5 ± 4.5 °F).[70] Tauca may have been subject to geothermal heating.[71]

The lake was deep and saline,

Na2SO4.[28]
Estimated salt concentrations:

Salt concentration Comment Source
20 g/L (0.00072 lb/cu in) [40]
30 to 40 g/L (0.0011 to 0.0014 lb/cu in) The latter, earlier, estimate may be incorrect; many salinity values were obtained from deposits at the lake margins, which tend to be less saline[74] [75]
60 to 90 g/L (0.0022 to 0.0033 lb/cu in) Later research [76]

Estimated salt concentrations (based on a lake level of 3,720 metres (12,200 ft), for sodium chloride, lithium and bromine):

Mineral Concentration Source
Sodium chloride 73 g/L (0.0026 lb/cu in) [77]
Chlorine 54 g/L (0.0020 lb/cu in) [78]
Sodium 32 g/L (0.0012 lb/cu in) [78]
Sulfate 8.5 g/L (0.00031 lb/cu in) [78]
Magnesium 3 g/L (0.00011 lb/cu in) [78]
Potassium 2.2 g/L (7.9×10−5 lb/cu in) [78]
Calcium 1 g/L (3.6×10−5 lb/cu in) [78]
Boron 60 mg/L (2.2×10−6 lb/cu in) [78]
Lithium 10 mg/L (3.6×10−7 lb/cu in) or 80 mg/L (2.9×10−6 lb/cu in) [77] and [79]
Bromine 1.6 ± 0.4 mg/L (5.8×10−8 ± 1.4×10−8 lb/cu in) [79]

Some of this salt penetrated aquifers beneath the lake, which still exist.[80] A significant excess NaCl concentration has been inferred for Lake Tauca, possibly stemming from salt domes whose contents moved from lake to lake.[81] Precipitation of calcium carbonate resulted in lake waters becoming progressively enriched in more soluble salts.[82]

Glacial

Rio Beni during the Holocene[95] has not received much support.[96]

Although earlier theories postulated that large lakes formed from glacial meltwater, increased precipitation or decreased evaporation (or both) are today considered necessary for lake formation;

land breezes.[20] According to strontium isotope data, there may have been little water exchange between Tauca's Uyuni and Coipasa basins.[100] During the Coipasa lake cycle, the Coipasa-Uyuni and Poopó basins had a limited connection.[101] Minor water-level fluctuations occurred during the lake's existence.[28]

Based on a 60,000-square-kilometre (23,000 sq mi) surface area, the evaporation rate has been estimated at over 70,000,000,000 cubic metres per year (2.5×1012 cu ft/a)—comparable to the discharges of the Nile or Rhine.[102] Less than half of this evaporation returned to the lake as precipitation;[103] in the central sector of the lake[104] at Tunupa, this would have increased precipitation by 80%,[90] delaying the retreat of glaciers in the area.[105] Groundwater from Lake Tauca may have drained into the Quebrada Puripica, northeast of Laguna Miscanti.[106] Given the height of the sill between the two basins and evidence found at Poopó,[102] water may have drained from the Coipasa-Uyuni basin into Lake Poopó during the Coipasa cycle.[107]

Glacial debris and ice were probably present at the lake,[36] with fan deltas at Tunupa overlapping the Lake Tauca shore.[108] At Tunupa and Cerro Azanaques, glaciers reached their maximum size shortly before the lake level peaked and probably contributed to water levels when their retreat began.[109] Two minor glacial advances, over 12,000 BP and about 11,000 BP, appear to coincide with Lake Tauca.[110]

Lake Tauca left up to 5 metres (16 ft) thick sediments in the southern Altiplano,[111] and tufa deposits formed in the lake. The continental environment Pleistocene sediments were formed from lacustrine carbonate deposits. These rocks contain amphibole, clay minerals such as illite, kaolinite and smectite, feldspar, plagioclase, potassium feldspar, pyroxene and quartz. The composition of these rocks resembles that of the Altiplano soils.[112] The sedimentation rate in the Uyuni basin was about 1 millimetre per year (0.0012 in/Ms).[113]

Biology

Vegetation during the Last Glacial Maximum

Low concentrations of pollen are found in sediments left by Lake Tauca in the Salar de Uyuni.[114] Lake Minchin sediments contain more pollen (indicating that it may have had a more favourable climate),[115] but the lack of pollen may be the product of a deeper lake.[116] Polylepis may have thrived in favourable salinity and climatic conditions.[36] Increased Polylepis and Acaena pollen is observed towards the end of the Tauca episode.[117]

The lake was deep enough for the development of planktonic diatoms,

planktonic Cyclotella striata and the tychoplanktonic Fragilaria atomus, Fragilaria construens and Fragilaria pinnata.[118] Epithemia has also been found.[119]

Sediments at the shoreline contain fossils of

gastropods and ostracods;[120] Littoridina and Succineidae snails have been used to date the lake.[121] Other genera included Myriophyllum, Isoetes[36] (indicating the formation of littoral communities)[116] and Pediastrum.[36] Algae grew in the lake and produced reef knolls (bioherms) formed by carbonate rocks. These grew in several phases,[122] and some were initially considered stromatolites.[120] Some dome-shaped bioherms reach a size of 4 metres (13 ft), forming reef-like structures on terraces. They developed around objects jutting from the surface, such as rocks. Tube- and tuft-shaped structures also appear on these domes.[123] Not all such structures formed during the Tauca episode.[122] Similar structures have been found in the Ries crater in Germany, where Cladophorites species were responsible for their construction. Taxa identified at Lake Tauca include Chara species.[119] The water above the tufa deposits was probably less than 20 metres (66 ft) deep.[120] In some places (linked to Phormidium encrustatum and Rivularia species), limited stromatolitic development took place.[119]

Research history

Reports of lake deposits on the Altiplano go back to 1861.

drill cores.[131]

Predecessor lakes

Main articles: Ouki, Salinas, Inca Huasi, and Sajsi

Before Lake Tauca, there were Ouki (120,000–98,000 years ago), Salinas (95,000–80,000 years ago), Inca Huasi (about 46,000 years ago), Sajsi (24,000–20,500 years ago) and Coipasa (13,000–11,000 years ago).[132] Inca Huasi and Minchin are sometimes considered the same lake phase,[133] and other researchers have suggested that Lake Minchin is a combination of several phases.[134][135] The Ouki cycle may be subdivided in the future, and a number of sometimes-contradictory names and dates exist for these paleolakes.[107]

Preceding lake: Escara

Escara was identified in the central Altiplano,[130] it may be the oldest Altiplano lake cycle.[136] Lake levels reached an altitude of 3,780 metres (12,400 ft);[137] perhaps reaching the size of Lake Tauca and Ouki.[138] At the town of Escara, 8 metres (26 ft) thick deposits have been left by the lake.[139]

Escara is dated to 191,000 years

Lake Ballivian may have existed in the northern Altiplano[137] as a southward extension of Lake Titicaca;[82] Lake Escara would be thus identical to "lake pre-Minchin" which has left terraces 60–70 metres (200–230 ft) above the present-day elevation.[143]

Hypothetical pluvial and lake: Minchin

A humid period 46,000-36,000 years ago has been deemed "Lake Minchin"; it led to the formation of a large body of water on the Altiplano

glacial advance extending to the southern Altiplano/Puna has been correlated with the Minchin/Inca Huasi stage;[154][155] the Choqueyapu II glacier advance in the Bolivian Andes,[156] more debatably the Canalaya Phase in the Cordillera Apolobamba[157] and the formation of the N-III moraines at Choquelimpie may coincide with the Minchin pluvial.[158] Sedimentation rates in the main Altiplano lake were much less than during the Tauca pluvial.[113]

The name "Lake Minchin" has been used inconsistently to refer to either the palaeolake at Lake Poopo,

radiocarbon dates.[160] Sometimes the term "Minchin" is also applied to the whole hydrological system Titicaca-Rio Desaguadero-Lake Poopo-Salar de Coipasa-Salar de Uyuni,[126] or to the highest ancient lake in the Altiplano (usually known as Lake Tauca).[161] There are also contradictions between lake level records in different parts of the system.[6] This confusion has led to calls to drop the usage of the name "Minchin".[34]

Chronology

Subdivision and glacial history of the latest Pleistocene and early Holocene Europe

The existence of Lake Tauca was preceded by a dry period, with minor lake events recorded in Salar de Uyuni in the Late Pleistocene at 28,200–30,800 and 31,800–33,400 BP.[145] This period was accompanied by the disappearance of ice from Nevado Sajama.[86] A dry period is also noted in Africa and other parts of South America around 18,000 BP, and the retreat of the Amazon rainforest may have produced the lake low-water mark.[162] The era may have been drier than the present.[163] The drying of Lake Minchin left a salt layer about 20 metres (66 ft) thick in the Salar de Uyuni, where gullies formed.[164] Some ooid sediments formed before the Lake Tauca phase.[165] Around 28,000 BP, lake levels rose in Lake Huinaymarca (Lake Titicaca's southern basin), preceding Lake Tauca by about two millennia.[166] During this period, lakes in the Uyuni basin were intermittent.[167] Previous lakes in the basin were generally small and shallow.[21]

The radiometric age of Lake Tauca ranges from 72,600 to 7200 BP.[168] The duration of the lake highstands may be overestimated due to radiation scatter.[169] Radiocarbon dates have been obtained on crusts containing calcite, gastropod shells, stromatolites and structures left behind by algae.[170] The Lake Tauca shorelines formed over more than century-long periods.[98]

The first research, by Servant and Fontes in 1978, indicated a lake age between 12,500 and 11,000 BP according to

uranium-thorium dating.[174]

In 1993 it was suggested that Lake Tauca had an earlier phase, with water levels reaching 3,740 metres (12,270 ft), and a later phase reaching 3,720 metres (12,200 ft).[173] Research published in 1995 indicated that the lake was shallow for over a millennium before rising to (and stabilizing at) its maximum level. Water levels between 13,900 and 11,500 BP reached 3,720 metres (12,200 ft); 3,740 metres (12,270 ft) was reached between 12,475 and 11,540 BP, and 3,760 to 3,770 metres (12,340 to 12,370 ft) between 12,200 and 11,500 BP.[175]

Research in 1999 indicated an earlier start of the Tauca lake cycle, which was subdivided into three phases and several sub-phases. Around 15,438 ± 80 BP (the Tauca Ia phase), water levels in Salar de Uyuni were 4 metres (13 ft) higher than the current salt crust. Lake levels then rose to 27 metres (89 ft) above the salt flat, accompanied by freshwater input (Tauca Ib). Around 13,530 ± 50 BP (Tauca II), the lake reached an altitude of 3,693 metres (12,116 ft), [118] not exceeding 3,700 metres (12,100 ft).[176] At this time, strong gully erosion and alluvial fans probably formed in Bolivian valleys.[177] Between 13,000 and 12,000 BP, the lake reached its greatest depth—110 metres (360 ft)—of the Tauca III period. Dates of 15,070 BP and 15,330 BP were obtained for the highest shoreline, at 3,760 metres (12,340 ft).[176] After 12,000 BP, water levels decreased abruptly by 100 metres (330 ft).[178] An even-earlier start was proposed by 2001 research, based on sediments in the Uyuni basin, which determined that Lake Tauca began developing 26,100 BP.[145] A 2001 review indicated that most radiometric dates for Lake Tauca cluster between 16,000 and 12,000 BP, with lake levels peaking around 16,000 BP.[35] A drop in oxygen-18 concentration in the Nevado Sajama glaciers has been associated with increased precipitation around 14,300 years ago.[68] A 2005 book estimated the duration of the Lake Tauca phase at between 15,000 and 10,500 BP.[179]

Research in 2006 postulated that the Lake Tauca

transgression began 17,850 BP and peaked at altitudes of 3,765 to 3,790 metres (12,352 to 12,434 ft) between 16,400 and 14,100 years ago.[180] Spillovers into neighbouring basins may have stabilized the lake levels at that point,[181] and the level subsequently dropped over a 300-year period.[180] The following Coipasa phase ended around 11,040 +120/-440 BP, but its chronology is uncertain.[181]

A 2011 lake history study set the beginning of the lake-level rise at 18,500 years ago. Levels rose slowly to 3,670 metres (12,040 ft) 17,500 years ago, before accelerating to 3,760 metres (12,340 ft) by 16,000 years ago. Contradictions between lake depths determined by shorelines and diatom-fossil analysis led to two lake-level-rise chronologies: one reaching 3,700 metres (12,100 ft) 17,000 years ago and the other reaching 3,690 metres (12,110 ft) between 17,500 and 15,000 years ago. The lake level would have peaked from 16,000 to 14,500 years ago at 3,765 to 3,775 metres (12,352 to 12,385 ft) altitude. Shortly before 14,200 BP, the lake level would have begun its drop to 3,660 metres (12,010 ft) by 13,800 BP.[182] The Coipasa phase began before 13,300 BP and reached its peak at 3,700 metres (12,100 ft) 12,500 years ago. The Coipasa lake's regression was nearly complete around 11,500 years ago.[70] A 2013 reconstruction envisaged a lake level rise between 18,000 - 16,500 years ago, followed by a highstand between 16,500 - 15,500 and a decrease in lake levels between 14,500 - 13,500 years ago.[183]

Lake Tauca is sometimes subdivided into three phases (Lake Tauca proper, Ticaña and Coipasa), with the Tauca phase lasting from 19,100 to 15,600 BP.

Lake Chungará.[187] The Coipasa phase was much less pronounced than the Tauca phase and shorter in duration,[188] and was concentrated on the Coipasa basin, presumably because it receives more water than the Uyuni basin.[73] An earlier lake phase, Sajsi (24,000–20,000 years ago), is sometimes considered part of Lake Tauca[133] with the Tauca and Coipasa cycles.[48] The Sajsi lake phase preceded the Tauca phase by one or two millennia[182] and water levels were about 100 metres (330 ft) lower than during the Tauca stage;[189] it coincided with the Last Glacial Maximum.[24]

The Ticaña phase was accompanied by a 100-metre (330 ft) drop in water level.[33] The Tauca and Coipasa phases are sometimes considered separate.[35] Lakes Tauca and Minchin have been considered the same lake system and called Lake Pocoyu, after the present-day lakes in the area.[190] "Minchin" is also used by some authors as a name for the system.[126]

Bare, dormant volcano
The Tunupa volcano was glaciated during the Tauca episode

The Chita

Bølling–Allerød climate period and increased wildfires on the Altiplano;[194] Lake Titicaca may have dropped beneath its outflow, cutting off the water supply to Lake Tauca.[195] Glacial retreat at the beginning of the Holocene may also have been a contributing factor.[75] As the lake receded, decreased evaporation (and cloud cover) would have enabled sunlight to increase the evaporation rate, further contributing to a decline in lake surface area.[196]

A pattern of lake cycles becoming longer than the preceding one has been noted.[39] Water from the lake may have contributed to increased oxygen-18 at Sajama around 14,300 years ago, possibly triggered by evaporation.[197] As the lake level dropped, Lake Poopó would have been disconnected first; the sill separating it from the rest of Lake Tauca is relatively shallow. Coipasa and Uyuni would have remained connected until later.[76] Water levels in Lake Titicaca's Lake Huinaimarca were low by 14,200 BP.[167] By the Antarctic Cold Reversal, Lake Tauca was dry.[198]

The end of the Tauca phase was followed by dry and cold conditions in the Puna, similar to the Younger Dryas, then by an early-Holocene humid period associated with decreased solar radiation. After 10,000 BP, another drought lasted from 8,500 BP to 3,600 BP,[186] and peaked from 7,200–6,700 BP.[199] The world's largest salt pan was left behind when Lake Tauca dried up,[30] with approximately 10 metres (33 ft) of material left at Salar de Uyuni.[200] Lake basins in the Altiplano which had filled during the Tauca phase were separated by lower lake levels.[201] Channels between the lakes testify to their former connections.[37]

Climate

Last Glacial Maximum sea water temperature map

There are few reconstructions of how the climate looked before and after the Lake Tauca highstand.[37] It has been estimated that summer precipitation would have increased by 315 ± 45 millimetres (12.4 ± 1.8 in) and temperature dropped 3 °C (5.4 °F) for Lake Tauca to form.[202] According to a 1985 estimate, increased precipitation of 200 millimetres per year (7.9 in/year) would be needed;[203] the estimate was subsequently revised to 300 millimetres per year (12 in/year).[51] With a 5 to 7 °C (9.0 to 12.6 °F) temperature decrease, a 20–75% increase in precipitation would be required to form the lake.[204] Research in 2013 indicated that the climate at the Tunupa volcano (in the centre of Lake Tauca) was about 6 to 7 °C (11 to 13 °F) colder than present, with rainfall estimated at 320 to 600 millimetres (13 to 24 in).[205] A 2018 estimate supported by 2020 research[206] envisages a temperature decrease of 2.9 ± 0.2 °C (5.22 ± 0.36 °F) and a mean precipitation 130% higher than today, about 900 ± 200 millimetres per year (35.4 ± 7.9 in/year);[207] this precipitation increase was concentrated on the eastern side of the catchment of Lake Tauca while the southernmost watershed was almost as dry as present-day.[104] In a coupled glacier-lake model, temperatures were conditionally estimated at 5.7 ± 1.1 °C (10.3 ± 2.0 °F) lower than today.[208] In the southern Altiplano, precipitation exceeded 500 millimetres (20 in) during this epoch.[209] In the central Altiplano, precipitation was 1.5 to three times higher than today.[210] In and around the Arid Diagonal, precipitation doubled from 300 millimetres per year (12 in/year) to 600 millimetres per year (24 in/year).[211] Around the lakes precipitation may have increased nine-fold.[212]

The formation of Lake Tauca coincides with Heinrich event 1[46] and has been explained with a southward shift of the Bolivian high[a] that increased transport of easterly moisture into the Altiplano[214] and a strengthening of the South American Summer Monsoon due to a decrease in the cross-equatorial transport of heat.[215] Earlier highstands of Altiplano lakes may also correlate to earlier Heinrich events.[25] Increased cloud cover probably increased the effective precipitation by reducing evaporation rates.[109] In contrast, insolation rates do not appear to be linked to lake-level highstands in the Altiplano;[216] the lake expansion occurred when summer insolation was low[186] although recently an insolation maximum between 26,000 and 15,000 years ago has been correlated to the Tauca stage.[217] The humidity above the lake has been estimated at 60%, taking into account the oxygen-18 content of carbonates deposited by the lake.[69]

Coinciding with Lake Tauca, between 17,000 and 11,000 BP glaciers expanded in the Andes between 18° and 24° south latitude.

ITCZ northward.[233] Today, the average temperature at stations at an altitude of 3,770 metres (12,370 ft) is 9 °C (48 °F).[8]

Context

The formation and disappearance of Lake Tauca was a major hydrological event

oases formed in the desert and human settlement began.[234] The Central Andean Pluvial Event has been subdivided into two phases, a first one which began either 17,500 or 15,900 years ago and ended 13,800 years ago and a second phase which began 12,700 years ago and ended either 9,700 or 8,500 years ago;[235] they were separated by a short dry period[236] that coincides with the Ticaña lowstand. The second phase of the Central Andean Pluvial Event has been subdivided further into a wetter earlier and a drier later subphase.[237] During the Coipasa lake cycle, precipitation may have focused on the southern Altiplano and been transported there from the Chaco; the main Tauca cycle may have been accompanied by precipitation from the northeast.[45] A glacial advance in the Turbio valley (a feeder of the Elqui River) between 17,000 and 12,000 years ago has been attributed to the Central Andean Pluvial Event.[238] Other indicators point to dry conditions/lack of glacier advances in central Chile and the central Puna during the highstand of Lake Tauca,[239][154] glaciers had already retreated from their maximum positions by the time it began[189] and the Central Andean Pluvial Event may not have been synchronous between the southern Altiplano and the southern[240] and northern Atacama.[241]

Increased precipitation during the Tauca phase was probably triggered by the southern movement of the

Northeastern Brazil.[244] Combined with a southern shift of high pressure zones, increased moisture during late glacial times[245] would have flowed from the Amazon.[246] This change, which occurred from 17,400–12,400 years or 18,000–11,000 BP, is recorded in Bolivian Chaco and Brazilian cave records.[247] Some 20th century phases of higher water levels in Lake Titicaca have been correlated with episodes of increased snow cover on Northern Hemisphere continents; this may constitute an analogy to conditions during the Lake Tauca phase.[248] The Tauca phase may have been triggered by the southern shift of tropical atmospheric circulation[249] and a weakening of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation that decreased northward heat transport.[244] An intensification and southward shift of the South Atlantic Convergence Zone[b] may have contributed to the precipitation increase[251] but not all records agree.[252]

Another theory posits that vegetation changes and lake development would have decreased the

El Niño[257] and the northward shift of the ITCZ accompanied the Ticaña lowstand.[193] The ideal conditions for the development of paleolakes in the Altiplano do not appear to exist during maximum glaciation or warm interglacial periods.[156]

Related events

Some lake water highstands of Salar de Atacama are associated with Lake Tauca's main highstand phase

During the Tauca phase, Lake Titicaca grew in size; the pampas around Titicaca were left by that lake and the paleolake Minchin.[258] Lake Titicaca rose by about 5 metres (16 ft),[137] reaching a height of 3,815 metres (12,516 ft),[130] and its water became less saline.[72] Another shoreline, at 3,825 metres (12,549 ft) altitude, has been linked to a highstand of Lake Titicaca during the Tauca epoch.[259] The highstand, in 13,180 ± 130 BP, is contemporaneous with the Tauca III phase. Titicaca's water level then dropped during the Ticaña phase and probably rose again during the Coipasa.[185] The highstands left terraces at the southern and eastern shores of Lake Titicaca[c],[260] which were later deformed by tectonic processes.[261]

Lake Titicaca probably overflowed on the south between 26,000 and 15,000 BP,[195] adding water to Lake Tauca.[262][263] Titicaca's outflow, the Rio Desaguadero, may have been eight times that of today.[83] Lake Titicaca was thought to have had a low water level during the Tauca phase before evidence of deeper water was found.[264] Higher lake levels have been found at the same time in other parts of the Altiplano and areas of the Atacama above 3,500 metres (11,500 ft).[265] This was not the first time Lake Titicaca rose; Pleistocene lake-level rises are known as Mataro, Cabana, Ballivian and Minchin.[266] The overflow from Lake Titicaca into the southern Altiplano was possible for the last 50,000 years; this might explain why there is little evidence of large lakes in the southern Altiplano in the time before 50,000 years ago.[263]

Lakes also formed (or expanded) in the Atacama at that time;

river terraces in Peru's Pisco River;[272] terraces dated 24,000–16,000 BP in its tributary, the Quebrada Veladera;[133] enlarged drainage systems in the Quebrada Veladera;[273] a humid period at Lake Junin,[274] and new soil formation in the pampas south of the Quinto River in Argentina[275] and in the Ahorcado river valley in Peru.[276] During the second Central Andean Pluvial Event, soils also formed in a wetland of northern Chile.[277]

During the Tauca phase, water levels in Laguna Miscanti were higher than today;

Laguna Mar Chiquita,[215] Laguna La Salada Grande in the Cordillera Oriental [es][283] and Salina de Bebedero in Argentina.[231]

Downward expansion of vegetation and increased discharge in the rivers draining to the Pacific Ocean has been correlated to the Tauca period.

Rio Bermejo increased;[289] the excavation of the Lluta River Valley[d],[290] Quebrada de Purmamarca[291] and the Colca Canyon may have been aided by an increased water supply,[292] river incision changed,[217] river terraces formed in the Lomas de Lachay,[153] erosion occurred along the Pilcomayo,[293] and an increase in Pacific plankton was probably linked to increased runoff (and an increased nutrient supply) from the Andes.[218] groundwater-fed wetlands developed in the Cordillera de la Costa,[d][294] and valleys and large salt caves formed northwest of the Salar de Atacama.[d][295]

Glaciers advanced in the

snow cover in the Atacama Altiplano increased to about 10% above 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) elevation;[302] glacier advanced in the northern Atacama.[d][303] A glacial advance in central Chile around 15,000 years ago, also associated with increased precipitation and the Lake Tauca period, was probably triggered by tropical circulation changes.[304]

Landslide activity decreased in northwestern Argentina

rust fungi were more diverse than today.[313] Prosopis tamarugo grew at higher altitude thanks to a better water supply;[d][314] and vegetation coverage increased in the Atacama Altiplano.[302] The well dated record of Lake Tauca has been used to correlate climatic events elsewhere in the region.[315]

Environmental consequences

The salt deposits of Salar de Uyuni were left by the lake

Paleoindian settlement in South America commenced during the Lake Tauca and Ticaña stages,[316] facilitated by the more favourable environment during the CAPE;[231] the Viscachani culture around Lake Titicaca was contemporaneous with Lake Tauca.[317] The earliest human dispersal in the region around Lake Tauca occurred towards the end of the Ticaña phase, with the Coipasa phase coinciding with the definitive establishment of humans in the region[318] and also their spread through northwestern Argentina, where conditions were favourable.[319] In the Atacama area, Tauca-age paleolakes had provided the environment for first settlers;[302] the end of the paleolake phase coinciding with Lake Tauca was accompanied by the end of the first phase of human settlement,[320] which had occurred during the Central Andean Pluvial Event; now humans left the desert.[321] In the Altiplano,[322] the wet period that was contemporaneous to Lake Tauca[234] allowed the settlement of the region[e][324] and the Central Andean Pluvial Event did the same in the Pampa del Tamarugal[325] and the southern Atacama valleys.[326] The initial peopling of the Salar de Atacama region was during the Lake Tauca[d] time, but a sharp population drop took place after its drying.[237] Inca towers on the Altiplano have been built with rocks left by Lake Tauca.[327]

Some fossil water reserves in the dry Andes formed during the Tauca phase,[328] the groundwater in the northern Chilean Central Valley,[329] around Peinado in the Puna[330] and part of the groundwater under Pampa del Tamarugal for example date back to the Lake Tauca wet phase.[331] Lake Tauca may have supplied water to the Rio de la Plata region, sustaining life there during dry periods.[91]

The Lake Tauca and preceding cycles left evaporite deposits,[332] with sediment layers left by the lake in the Salar de Uyuni reaching a thickness of 6 metres (20 ft).[131] The salts are continually washed out and re-deposited by ephemeral rainfall, causing the salt surfaces of the Salars to become very flat and smooth.[82] The high aerosol content of the air in the Uyuni region has been attributed to fine sediments left by Lake Tauca.[22] Diatomaceous deposits containing clay or calc were left behind by the lake,[42] and ulexite deposits were formed by sediments in its deltas.[333]

The taxonomic similarity between fish species of the genus

Gomphotheriidae, Megatheriidae and Toxodontidae;[336] the Atacama Altiplano had far more life than today during the Tauca cycle, including now-extinct deer and horses.[337] On the other hand, the Altiplano lakes would have separated the animal and plant populations.[338]

Altiplanos and paleolakes in Latin America

Latin America Valley of Mexico Altiplano Cundiboyacense Altiplano Boliviano
M
M
C
C
B
B
Paleolake Lake Texcoco Lake Humboldt Lake Tauca
Human occupation (yr BP) 11,100 - Tocuila 12,460 - El Abra 3530 - Tiwanaku
Pre-Columbian civilisation Aztec Muisca Inca
Today Mexico Mexico City Colombia Bogotá, Tunja Peru Lake Titicaca
Bolivia Salar de Uyuni
Elevation 2,236 m (7,336 ft) 2,580 m (8,460 ft) 3,800 m (12,500 ft)
Area 9,738 km2 (3,760 sq mi) 25,000 km2 (9,700 sq mi) 175,773 km2 (67,866 sq mi)
References
[339][340][341]
[342][343][f]
[344][345][346]

See also
  • Uturunku

Notes

  1. ^ The Bolivian high is an anticyclone which steers moist air onto the Altiplano.[213]
  2. ^ The South Atlantic Convergence Zone is a rainfall belt over central and southern Brazil during southern hemisphere summer.[250]
  3. ^ The name "Lake Minchin" is often used for the largest lake on the Altiplano,[34] however the highstand at the end of the Pleistocene is called Tauca.[52]
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k The associated Central Andean Pluvial Event coincided with the formation of Lake Tauca[234]
  5. ^ Including sites of Cerro Kaskio[322] and Cueva Bautista close by,[323]
  6. ^ Area Altiplano Cundiboyacense approximately 25,000 square kilometres (9,700 sq mi)

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