Land
Land, also known as dry land, ground, or earth, is the solid terrestrial surface of
Land terrain varies greatly, consisting of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, glaciers, and other landforms. In physical geology, the land is divided into two major categories: Mountain ranges and relatively flat interiors called cratons. Both form over millions of years through plate tectonics. Streams – a major part of Earth's water cycle – shape the landscape, carve rocks, transport sediments, and replenish groundwater. At high elevations or latitudes, snow is compacted and recrystallized over hundreds or thousands of years to form glaciers, which can be so heavy that they warp the Earth's crust. About 30 percent of land has a dry climate, due to losing more water through evaporation than it gains from precipitation. Since warm air rises, this generates winds, though Earth's rotation and uneven sun distribution also play a part.
Land is commonly defined as the solid, dry surface of Earth.
Though modern terrestrial plants and animals evolved from aquatic creatures, Earth's first cellular life likely originated on land. Survival on land relies on fresh water from rivers, streams, lakes, and glaciers, which constitute only three percent of the water on Earth. The vast majority of human activity throughout history has occurred in habitable land areas supporting agriculture and various natural resources. In recent decades, scientists and policymakers have emphasized the need to manage land and its biosphere more sustainably, through measures such as restoring degraded soil, preserving biodiversity, protecting endangered species, and addressing climate change.
Etymology
The word land derived from the
A
Physical science
The study of land and its history in general is called geography. Mineralogy is the study of minerals, and petrology is the study of rocks. Soil science is the study of soils, encompassing the sub-disciplines of pedology, which focuses on soil formation, and edaphology, which focuses on the relationship between soil and life.
Formation
The earliest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4.5672±0.0006
Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by volcanic activity and outgassing that included water vapour. The origin of the world's oceans was condensation augmented by water and ice delivered by asteroids, protoplanets, and comets.[19] In this model, atmospheric "greenhouse gases" kept the oceans from freezing while the newly formed Sun was only at 70% luminosity.[20] By 3.5 bya, the Earth's magnetic field was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind.[21] The atmosphere and oceans of the Earth continuously shape the land by eroding and transporting solids on the surface.[22]
Earth's crust formed when the molten outer layer of the planet Earth cooled to form a solid mass[23] as the accumulated water vapour began to act in the atmosphere. Once land became capable of supporting life, biodiversity evolved over hundreds of millions of years, expanding continually except when punctuated by mass extinctions.[24]
The two models
Landmasses
A continuous area of land surrounded by an ocean is called a landmass. Although it is most often written as one word to distinguish it from the usage "land mass"—the measure of land area—it may also be written as two words.[34] There are four major continuous landmasses on Earth: Africa-Eurasia, America (landmass), Antarctica, and Australia (landmass), which are subdivided into continents.[35] Up to seven geographical regions are commonly regarded as continents. Ordered from greatest to least land area, these continents are Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia.[36]
Terrain
Terrain refers to an area of land and its features, or landforms. It affects travel, mapmaking, ecosystems, and surface
Elevation is defined as the vertical distance between an object and sea level, while altitude is defined as the vertical distance from an object to Earth's surface.[38] The elevation of Earth's land surface varies from the low point of −418 m (−1,371 ft) at the Dead Sea, to a maximum altitude of 8,848 m (29,029 ft) at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about 797 m (2,615 ft),[39] with 98.9% of dry land situated above sea level.[40]
A difference between uplands, or
Geomorphology
Geomorphology refers to the study of the natural processes that shape land's surface, creating landforms.
Plate tectonics refers to the theory that Earth's lithosphere is divided into "tectonic plates" that move over the mantle.[3]: 66 This results in continental drift, with continents moving relative to each other.[55] The scientist Alfred Wegener first hypothesized the theory of continental drift in 1912.[56] More researchers gradually developed his idea throughout the 20th century into the widely accepted theory of plate tectonics of today.
Several key characteristics define modern understanding of plate tectonics. The place where two tectonic plates meet is called a
Climate
Earth's land interacts with and influences its
Different types of land cover will influence the land's albedo, a measure of the solar radiation that is reflected, rather than absorbed and transferred to Earth.[62] Vegetation has a relatively low albedo, meaning that vegetated surfaces are good absorbers of the sun's energy. Forests have an albedo of 10–15 percent while grasslands have an albedo of 15–20 percent. In comparison, sandy deserts have an albedo of 25–40 percent.[62]
Land use by humans also plays a role in the regional and global climate. Densely populated cities are warmer and create urban heat islands that have effects on the precipitation, cloud cover, and temperature of the region.[61]
Features
A landform is a natural or manmade.
Coasts and islands
The
When land is in contact with bodies of water, the land is likely weathered and eroded. The weathering of a coastline may be impacted by the tides, caused by changes in gravitational forces on larger bodies of water.[47]: 352–353 [64] The precise length of Earth's coastline is indeterminable due to the coastline paradox.[65] According to The World Factbook, the coastline is around 356,000 kilometres (221,000 mi), while according to the World Resources Institute, it is 1,634,701 kilometres (1,015,756 mi).[66][67]
Coasts are important zones in natural ecosystems, often home to a wide range of biodiversity.[68] On land, they harbour important ecosystems such as freshwater or estuarine wetlands, which are important for bird populations and other terrestrial animals. In wave-protected areas they harbor saltmarshes, mangroves or seagrasses, all of which can provide nursery habitat for finfish, shellfish, and other aquatic species. Rocky shores are usually found along exposed coasts and provide habitat for a wide range of sessile animals (e.g. mussels, starfish, barnacles) and various kinds of seaweeds. Along tropical coasts with clear, nutrient-poor water, coral reefs can often be found between depths of 1–50 meters (3.3–164.0 feet).[69]
According to a
An
Mountains and plateaus
Mountains are features that usually rise at least 300 metres (980 ft) higher than the surrounding terrain.[75] The formation of mountain belts is called orogenesis, and results from plate tectonics.[3]: 448–449 For example, where a plate at a convergent plate boundary pushes one plate above the other, mountains could be formed by either collisional events, such that Earth's crust is pushed upwards,[3]: 454–460 or subductional events, where Earth's crust is pushed into the mantle, causing the crust to melt, rise due to its low density, and solidify into hardened rock, thickening the crust.[3]: 449–453
A
Plains and valleys
Wide, flat areas of land are called
Caves and craters
Any natural void in the ground which can be entered by a human can be considered a cave.[85][86] They have been important to humans as a place of shelter since the dawn of humanity.[87]
Layers
The
Land cover
Land cover refers to the material physically present on the land surface, for example, woody crops, herbaceous crops, barren land, and shrub-covered areas. Artificial surfaces (including cities) account for about a third of a percent of all land.[90] Land use refers to human allocation of land for various purposes, including farming, ranching, and recreation (e.g. national parks); worldwide, there are an estimated 16.7 million km2 (6.4 million sq mi) of cropland, and 33.5 million km2 (12.9 million sq mi) of pastureland.[91]
Land cover change detection using remote sensing and geospatial data provides baseline information for assessing the climate change impacts on habitats and biodiversity, as well as natural resources, in the target areas. Land cover change detection and mapping is a key component of interdisciplinary land change science, which uses it to determine the consequences of land change on climate.[92] Land change modeling is used to predict and analyze changes in land cover and use.[93]
Soil
Soil is a
Given its complexity and strong internal
Soil is a major component of the Earth's ecosystem. The world's ecosystems are impacted in far-reaching ways by the processes carried out in the soil, with effects ranging from
Continental crust
Continental crust is the layer of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks that forms the geological continents and the areas of shallow seabed close to their shores, known as continental shelves. This layer is sometimes called sial because its bulk composition is richer in aluminium silicate and has a lower density compared to the oceanic crust,[108] called sima which is richer in magnesium silicate. Changes in seismic wave velocities have shown that at a certain depth (the Conrad discontinuity), there is a reasonably sharp contrast between the more felsic upper continental crust and the lower continental crust, which is more mafic in character.[109]
The composition of land is not uniform across the Earth, varying between locations and between
The most abundant silicate minerals on Earth's surface include quartz, feldspars, amphibole, mica, pyroxene and olivine.[114] Common carbonate minerals include calcite (found in limestone) and dolomite.[115] The rock that makes up land is thicker than oceanic crust, and it is far more varied in terms of composition. About 31% of this continental crust is submerged in shallow water, forming continental shelves.[110]
Life science
Land provides many ecosystem services, such as mitigating climate change, regulating water supply through drainage basins and river systems, and supporting food production. Land resources are finite, which has led to regulations intended to safeguard these ecosystem services, and a set of practices called sustainable land management.[2]
Land biomes
A biome is an area "characterized by its vegetation, soil, climate, and
- thunderstorms, which cause flash floods. Deserts are expanding due to desertification, which is caused by excessive deforestation and overgrazing.[121][3]: 598–621
- Kildin Sámi word тӯндар (tūndâr) meaning "uplands", "treeless mountain tract".[122] There are three regions and associated types of tundra: Arctic tundra[123] alpine tundra,[123] and Antarctic tundra.[124]
- A boreal forests.
- Savannasare grasslands with occasional, scattered trees.
Fauna and flora
Land plants evolved from
Unlike plants,
Humans and land
Land is "deeply intertwined with human development."[2]: 21 It is a crucial resource for human survival,[131] humans depend on land for subsistence, and can develop strong symbolic attachments to it. Access to land can determine "survival and wealth," particularly in developing countries, giving rise to complex power relationships in production and consumption. Most of the world's philosophies and religions recognize a human duty of stewardship towards land and nature.[2]
Culture
Many humans see land as a source of "spirituality, inspiration, and beauty." Many also derive a sense of belonging from land, especially if it also belonged to their ancestors.[2] Various religions teach about a connection between humans and the land (such as veneration of Bhumi, a personification of the Earth in Hinduism,[133] and the obligation to protect land as hima in Islam), and in almost every Indigenous group there are etiological stories about the land they live on.[2] For Indigenous peoples, connection to the land is an important part of their identity and culture,[134] and some religious groups consider a particular area of land to be sacred, such as the Holy Land in the Abrahamic religions.[135]
The spherical form of the Earth was suggested by early
Travel
Humans have commonly traveled for business, pleasure, discovery, and adventure, all made easier in recent human history as a result of technologies like cars, trains, planes, and ships. Land navigation is an aspect of travel and refers to progressing through unfamiliar terrain using navigational tools like maps with references to terrain, a compass, or satellite navigation.[144] Navigation on land is often facilitated by reference to landmarks – enduring and recognizable natural or artificial features that stand out from their nearby environment and are often visible from long distances.[145] Natural landmarks can be characteristic features, such as mountains or plateaus, with examples including Table Mountain in South Africa, Mount Ararat in Turkey, the Grand Canyon in the United States, Uluru in Australia, and Mount Fuji in Japan.[146]
Two major eras of exploration occurred in human history: one of divergence, and one of convergence. The former saw humans moving out of Africa, settling in new lands, and developing distinct cultures in relative isolation.
Trade
Human trade has occurred since the prehistoric era.
In economics,
Land use
For more than 10,000 years, humans have engaged in activities on land such as hunting, foraging, controlled burning, land clearing, and agriculture. Beginning with the Neolithic Revolution and the spread of agriculture around the world, human land use has significantly altered terrestrial ecosystems, with an essentially global transformation of Earth's landscape by 3000 years ago.[153]: 30 [154][155] From around 1750, human land use has increased at an accelerating rate due to the Industrial Revolution, which created a greater demand for natural resources and caused rapid population growth.[153]: 34
Agriculture includes both
Another form of land use is
Law
The phrase "
Geopolitics
Borders are geographical boundaries imposed either by geographic features (
Many wars and other conflicts have occurred in efforts by participants to expand the land under their control, or to assert control of a specific area of considered to hold strategic, historical, or cultural significance. The Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries became the largest contiguous land empire in history through war and conquest.[164]
In the
The aggression of Nazi Germany in World War II was motivated in part by the concept of Lebensraum ("living space"), which had first became a geopolitical goal of Imperial Germany in World War I (1914–1918) originally, as the core element of the Septemberprogramm of territorial expansion.[169] The most extreme form of this ideology was supported by the Nazi Party (NSDAP). Lebensraum was one of the leading motivations Nazi Germany had in initiating World War II, and it would continue this policy until the end of World War II.[170]
Environmental issues
Land degradation is "the reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity and complexity" of land as a result of human activity.
Soil degradation
Human land use can cause soil to degrade, both in quality and in quantity.[171]: 44 Soil degradation can be caused by agrochemicals (such as fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides), infrastructure development, and mining among other activities.[171]: 43–47 There are several different processes that lead to soil degradation. Physical processes, such as erosion, sealing, and crusting, lead to the structural breakdown of the soil. This means water cannot penetrate the soil surface, causing surface runoff.[171]: 44 Chemical processes, such as salinization, acidification, and toxication, lead to chemical imbalances in the soil.[171]: 44 Salinization in particular is detrimental, as it makes land less productive for agriculture and affects at least 20% of all irrigated lands.[158]: 137 Deliberate disruption of soil in the form of tillage can also alter biological processes in the soil, which leads to excessive mineralization and the loss of nutrients.[171]: 44
Desertification is a type of land degradation in drylands in which fertile areas become increasingly arid as a result of natural processes or human activities, resulting in loss of biological productivity.[176] This spread of arid areas can be influenced by a variety of human factors, such as deforestation, improper land management, overgrazing,[177] anthropogenic climate change,[178] and overexploitation of soil.[179] Throughout geological history, desertification has occurred naturally, though in recent times it is greatly accelerated by human activity.[177][180][181]
Pollution
Ground pollution is
Biodiversity loss
Biodiversity loss is the "decrease in biodiversity within a species, an ecosystem, a given geographic area, or Earth as a whole". It can be caused by natural disasters, or by humans activity, but the latter is more impactful.[187] Agriculture can cause biodiversity loss as land is converted for agricultural use at a very high rate, particularly in the tropics, which directly causes habitat loss. The use of pesticides and herbicides can also negatively impact the health of local species.[171]: 43 Ecosystems can also be divided and degraded by infrastructure development outside of urban areas.[171]: 46
Biodiversity loss can sometimes be reversed through
Resource depletion
Although humans have used land for its
Gallery
Different varieties of landscapes:
-
Sahara Desert, Libya
-
Meadow in the Swiss Alps
See also
Notes
- ^ The exact number of volcanoes depends on the geographic boundaries used by the source. This number excludes Antarctica and the western islands of Indonesia and includes the Izu, Bonin, and Mariana Islands.
- Temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands, Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub, and Deserts and xeric shrublands.[118]
- Mangroves, which are both wetlands.[118]
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