Land reclamation
Land reclamation, usually known as reclamation, and also known as land fill (not to be confused with a waste
beds. The land reclaimed is known as reclamation ground, reclaimed land, or land fill.In some jurisdictions, including parts of the United States,[1] the term "reclamation" can refer to returning disturbed lands to an improved state. In Alberta, Canada, for example, reclamation is defined by the provincial government as "The process of reconverting disturbed land to its former or other productive uses."[2] In Oceania, it is frequently referred to as land rehabilitation.
History
One of the earliest large-scale projects was the
Methods
Land reclamation can be achieved by a number of different methods. The simplest method involves filling the area with large amounts of heavy rock and/or cement, then filling with clay and dirt until the desired height is reached. The process is called "infilling"[5] and the material used to fill the space is generally called "infill".[6][7] Draining of submerged wetlands is often used to reclaim land for agricultural use. Deep cement mixing is used typically in situations in which the material displaced by either dredging or draining may be contaminated and hence needs to be contained. Land dredging is also another method of land reclamation. It is the removal of sediments and debris from the bottom of a body of water. It is commonly used for maintaining reclaimed land masses as sedimentation, a natural process, fills channels and harbors.[8]
Notable instances
Africa
- The Hassan II Mosque is built on reclaimed land.
- The Eko Atlantic in Lagos.
- Gracefield Island in Lekki, Lagos.
- Stone Town in Zanzibar.
Asia
- Parts of the coastlines of Mainland China, Hong Kong, North Korea and South Korea. It is estimated that nearly 65% of tidal flats around the Yellow Sea have been reclaimed.[9]
- The north of Bahrain.
- Inland lowlands in the Yangtze valley, China, including the areas of important cities like Shanghai and Wuhan.[10]
- Hainan Province, China, where the west side of Haidian Island is being extended, and off the coast of Haikou, where new land for a marina is being created.
- The casinosare located.
- The southern Chinese city of Shenzhen.
- Much of the coastline of Mazgaon. (See also Hornby Vellard).[11]
- The shore of Jakarta Bay. Land is usually reclaimed to create new housing areas and real estate properties, for the rapidly expanding city of Jakarta. So far, the largest reclamation project in the city is the creation of Golf Island, north of Pantai Indah Kapuk.[12]
- Giant Sea Wall Jakarta.
- Nagoya Centrair Airport.
- Kansai International Airport, Osaka.
- Forest City, an integrated residential and tourism district in Johor, Malaysia, was controversial due to its reclamation of wetlands of international importance under the Ramsar Conventionin a designated Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) Rank 1 area.
- Much of the coastline of Karachi.
- The whole 3 km2 (1.2 sq mi) business district of Cebu South Road Properties in Cebu City.
- The shore of Manila Bay, especially along Metro Manila, has attracted major developments such as the Mall of Asia Complex, Entertainment City and the Cultural Center of the Philippines Complex.
- A part of the Hamad International Airport, around 36 square kilometres (14 sq mi).
- The entire island of The Pearl Island situated in West Bay (Doha).
- The city-state of Singapore, where land is in short supply, is also famous for its efforts on land reclamation.[13]
- The size of Singapore has increased by 25% from 581.5 square kilometres in 1960 to 725.7 in 2019. This is part of the nation's plans to create more homes and common spaces in the land scarce city-state. Upcoming projects, such as the Long Island project, involving the reclamation of three tracts of land (expected to span around 800 ha), which is set at a higher level to protect against rising sea levels. It will also enclose a body of water, acting as a reservoir, strengthening the nation's water resilience. Detailed technical studies are currently underway lasting 5 years. This project would take a few decades to plan and implement[14][15]
- Colombo International Financial City.
- Some of the coastline of Saadiyat Island which is used for commercial purposes.[16]
- The Burj al-Araboff Dubai.
- The Yas Island in Abu Dhabi.
Europe
- The southwestern residential area in Brest.
- The port of Zeebrugge.
- Certain areas of Denmark.
- Helsinki (of which the major part of the city center is built on reclaimed land).
- A big part of Kavala.
- Lake Copais.
- Parts of Dublin, including the North Wall, East Wall, Grand Canal Dock and Bull Island.
- The airport peninsula, the industrial area of Cornigliano, the PSA container terminal and other parts of the port in Genoa.
- Venice.
- Rione Orsini, part of Borgo Santa Lucia, Naples.
- Fucine Lake.
- Almost half of the microstate of Monaco
- Most of Fontvieille, Monaco
- Parts surrounding Port Hercules in La Condamine, Monaco
- Parts of Saint Petersburg, such as the Marine Facade.
- Barceloneta area, Barcelona.
- England
- Pier Head in Liverpool.
- Samphire Hoe in Kent was created using 4.9 million cubic metres of chalk marl from the nearby Channel Tunnel excavations from 1988 to 1994.
- Almost all of the Thames estuary including large parts of London[17]
- The Fens in East Anglia.
- Jersey
- Waterfront Centre, St. Helier.
- Waterfront Centre,
- Northern Ireland
- Most of Belfast Harbour and areas of Belfast.
- Scotland
- Majority of left-bank and some right-bank residential areas of Kyiv were built on a reclaimed fens and floodplains of the Dnieper river.
North America
- The Potter's Cay in Nassau, The Bahamas was connected to the island of New Providence.
- The shore of Nassau, The Bahamasespecially along East Bay street.
- Much of St David's Islandare reclaimed; the island, the site of Bermuda's international airport, was formerly several smaller islands.
- Notre Dame Island in Montreal. In the Saint Lawrence River, 15 million tons of rock excavated from the Montreal Metro underground rail in 1965 to form an artificial island.
- Leslie Street Spit, the downtown waterfront south of Front Street, and sections of the Toronto Islands in Toronto.
- Part of Nuns' Island in Montreal.
- Mexico City (which is situated at the former site of Lake Texcoco); the chinampas are a famous example.
- The Chicago shoreline.
- The Northwestern University Lakefill, part of the campus of Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois.
- Several neighborhoods in Boston, Massachusetts are the result of landfill.[21]
- Battery Park City, Manhattan.
- Several islands in Biscayne Bay in the Miami metropolitan area, including the Venetian Islands, are the result of landfill.
- Brooklyn Bridge Park, Brooklyn.
- Liberty State Park, Jersey City.
- Parts of New Orleans (which is partially built on land that was once swamp).
- Much of the urbanized area adjacent to San Francisco Bay, including most of San Francisco's waterfront and Financial District, San Francisco International Airport, the Port of Oakland, and large portions of the city of Alameda has been reclaimed from the bay. The entirety of Treasure Island was also reclaimed to cover over the shallow waters north of Yerba Buena Island that presented a navigational hazard.
- Large hills in Seattle were removed and used to create Harbor Island and reclaim land along Elliott Bay. In particular, the neighborhoods of SoDo, Seattle and Interbay are largely built on filled wetlands.
Oceania
- Most of Barangaroo, a current commercial and residential suburb in the central business district of Sydney, New South Wales.
- Parts of Darling Harbour, a locality west of the Sydney central business district.
- A large portion of the southern suburb of Sydney, Australia.
- The southernmost portions of runways at Sydney Airport.
- Large portions of Port Botanyin metropolitan Sydney.
- Large amounts of the Melbourne Docklands.
- Portions of the Perth central business district in Western Australia, including the entirety of Mounts Bay(pictured above).
- My Suva park, a recreation park for the Greater Suva area.
- Considerable areas of Southern Endowment", stretching from the central city to the southeastern suburbs along the shore of Otago Harbour.
- Prior to the Napier earthquake of 1931, significant reclamation of the then-lagoon was undertaken in areas of Napier South and Ahuriri. There were also minor reclamation works undertaken after 1931 on the new low-lying lands brought up by the earthquake.
- Areas around Wellington and Auckland's harbours have also been reclaimed.
South America
- The entire riverfront of Buenos Aires, including the port and an airport.
- Large parts of Rio de Janeiro, most notably several blocks in the new docks area, the entire Flamengo Park and the neighborhood of Urca.
- Parts of Florianópolis.[22]
- Parts of the Lake Guaíba between the end of the 19th century and the 1970s.[23]
- Parts of Valparaíso.
- Santa Cruz del Islote,[24] in the Caribbean Sea of Colombia, one of the most densely populated islands in the world,[24] was built in an artificial way gaining land from the sea.
- Parts of Panama City urban and street development are based on reclaimed land, using material extracted from Panama Canal excavations.
- The Cinta Costera, in Panama City.
- Parts of Montevideo, Rambla Sur and several projects still going on in Montevideo's Bay.
- Parts of the Vargas State[25] in the north of Venezuela, parts of Los Monjes Archipelago, the Isla Paraíso[26] (paradise island) in the Anzoátegui State and the La Salina island in the Zulia State, were built with land reclaimed from the sea.
Agriculture
Agriculture was a driver of land reclamation before
A related practice is the
Even in the post-industrial age, there have been land reclamation projects intended for increasing available agricultural land. For example, the village of
Artificial islands
Beach restoration
Beach rebuilding is the process of repairing beaches using materials such as sand or mud from inland. This can be used to build up beaches suffering from beach starvation or erosion from longshore drift. It stops the movement of the original beach material through longshore drift and retains a natural look to the beach. Although it is not a long-lasting solution, it is cheap compared to other types of coastal defences. An example of this is the city of Mumbai.[11]
Landfill
As
An example of a
A notable example is Sydney Olympic Park, the primary venue for the 2000 Summer Olympic Games, which was built atop an industrial wasteland that included landfills.
Another strategy for landfill is the incineration of landfill trash at high temperature via the
Environmental impact
Draining wetlands for ploughing, for example, is a form of habitat destruction. In some parts of the world, new reclamation projects are restricted or no longer allowed, due to environmental protection laws. Reclamation projects have strong negative impacts on coastal populations, although some species can take advantage of the newly created area.[31] A 2022 global analysis estimated that 39% of losses (approximately 5,300 km2 or 2,000 sq mi) and 14% of gains (approximately 1,300 km2 or 500 sq mi) of tidal wetlands (mangroves, tidal flats, and tidal marshes) between 1999-2019 were due to direct human activities, including conversion to aquaculture, agriculture, plantations, coastal developments and other physical structures.[32]
Environmental legislation
The State of California created a state commission, the San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission, in 1965 to protect San Francisco Bay and regulate development near its shores. The commission was created in response to growing concern over the shrinking size of the bay.
Hong Kong legislators passed the Protection of the Harbour Ordinance, proposed by the Society for Protection of the Harbour, in 1997 in an effort to safeguard the increasingly threatened Victoria Harbour against encroaching land development.[33] Several large reclamation schemes at Green Island, West Kowloon, and Kowloon Bay were subsequently shelved, and others reduced in size.
Dangers
Reclaimed land is highly susceptible to soil liquefaction during earthquakes,[34] which can amplify the amount of damage that occurs to buildings and infrastructure. Subsidence is another issue, both from soil compaction on filled land, and also when wetlands are enclosed by levees and drained to create Polders. Drained marshes will eventually sink below the surrounding water level, increasing the danger from flooding.
Land amounts added
Asia
Country or territory | Notes |
---|---|
Bahrain | 76.3% of original size of 410 km2 (160 sq mi) (1931–2007). [citation needed][35] |
Bangladesh | About 110 km2 (42 sq mi) in total and has 12,000 square kilometres (4,600 sq mi) potential (8% of total area) up to 12 metres (39 ft) depth in the territorial sea area.[36] |
Hong Kong | 67 km2 (26 sq mi) of land was reclaimed up to 2013. Praya Reclamation Scheme began in the late 1860s and consisted of two stages totaling 20 to 24 hectares (50 to 60 acres).[3] Hong Kong Disneyland, Hong Kong International Airport, and its predecessor, Kai Tak Airport, were all built on reclaimed land. In addition, much reclamation has taken place in prime locations on the waterfront on both sides of Victoria Harbour. This has raised environmental issues of the protection of the harbour which was once the source of prosperity of Hong Kong, traffic congestion in the Central District,[37] as well as the collusion of the Hong Kong Government with the real estate developers in the territory.[38][39] In addition, as the city expanded, new towns in different decades were mostly built on reclaimed land, such as Kwun Tong, Sha Tin-Ma On Shan, Tai Po, Tseung Kwan O, Tuen Mun, and West Kowloon. |
India | Mumbai – An archipelago of originally seven separate islands were joined by land reclamation over a span of five centuries. This was done to develop Mumbai as a harbour city. |
Indonesia | Jakarta – Giant Sea Wall Jakarta is part of a massive coastal development project at Jakarta Bay. |
Japan | |
Macao | 170% of the original size or 17 km2 (6.6 sq mi)[41] |
North Korea | In the 1980s, North Korea commenced a "find new land" program to reclaim 300,000 hectares of land (3,000 km2 or 1,160 mi2) in order to expand the country's supply of |
Philippines |
|
Singapore | 20 percent of the original size or 135 km2 (52 sq mi). As of 2003[update], plans for 99 km2 (38 sq mi) more are to go ahead,[46] even though disputes persist with Malaysia over Singapore's extensive land reclamation works.[47] Parts of Changi Airport are also on reclaimed land. |
South Korea | As of 2006, 38 percent or 1,550 km2 (600 sq mi) of coastal wetlands reclaimed, including 400 km2 (150 sq mi) at Songdo International Business district , the largest private development in history, is a large-scale reclamation project built entirely on tidal mudflats.
|
United Arab Emirates | Dubai has a total of four reclaimed islands (the Palm Deira). There are several human-made islands in Abu Dhabi, such as Yas Island and Al Lulu Island .
|
Europe
Country | Notes |
---|---|
Monaco | 0.41 km2 (0.16 sq mi) out of 2.05 km2 (0.79 sq mi), or one fifth of Monaco comes from land taken from the sea, mainly in the neighborhoods of Fontvieille, La Condamine, and Larvotto/Bas Moulins. |
Netherlands | About 1/6 (almost 17%) of the entire country, or about 7,000 km2 (2,700 sq mi) in total, has been reclaimed from the sea, lakes, marshes and swamps. The province of Flevoland has almost completely been reclaimed from the Zuiderzee. |
Other countries
Country | Notes |
---|---|
New Zealand | Significant areas of land totalling several hundred hectares have been reclaimed along the harbourfronts of |
Nigeria | Eko Atlantic,[50] Lagos – 25 square kilometers |
List of reclaimed land by country and territory
Country or territory | Reclaimed land (km2) | Notes |
---|---|---|
China | 13,500+ km2 | Land reclamation in China |
Netherlands | 7,000 km2 | |
South Korea | 1,550 km2 | |
United States | 1,000+ km2 | Artificial islands of the United States |
Japan | 500+ km2 | |
United Arab Emirates | 470 km2 | Land reclamation in the United Arab Emirates |
Bahrain | 410 km2 | |
Singapore | 135 km2 | Land reclamation in Singapore |
Bangladesh | 110 km2 | |
Hong Kong | 67 km2 | Land reclamation in Hong Kong |
Qatar | 35 km2 | |
Macao | 17 km2 | |
Philippines | 9.26 km2 | Cebu South Road Properties Central Business District and Land reclamation in Metro Manila |
New Zealand | 3.3 km2 | Reclamation of Wellington Harbour[51] |
Sri Lanka | 2.33 km2 | Colombo International Financial City[52][circular reference ]
|
South Africa | 1.94 km2 | Cape Town Foreshore[53] |
Maldives | 0.62 km2 | Velana International Airport[54] |
Monaco | 0.41 km2 | Land reclamation in Monaco |
See also
- Artificial island
- Great wall of sand
- Marine regression – the formation of new land by reductions in sea level
- Drainage system (agriculture) – drainage for land reclamation
- Land improvement
- Land recycling
- Mine reclamation
- Polder – low-lying land reclaimed from a lake or sea
- Reclamation of Wellington Harbour, New Zealand
- River reclamation
- Water reclamation
- Rainbowing
Notes
- ^ "American Society for Mining and Reclamation". Archived from the original on 2012-03-23. Retrieved 2012-04-01.
- ISBN 0-7785-2156-7. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2012-04-09. Retrieved 2012-04-01.
- ^ ISBN 962-209-574-7
- ^ Petry, Anne K. (July 2003). "Geography of Japan" (PDF). Japan Digest, Indiana University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-28. Retrieved 2009-07-30.
- ISBN 978-9956-11-005-6.
- ^ "Wisconsin Supplement Engineering Field Handbook Chapter 16: Streambank and Shoreline Protection" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture. February 2009. p. 16–WI–36. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-07-07. Retrieved 2018-03-22.
- ^ "Regional Road Maintenance ESA Program, Part 2: Best Management Practices" (PDF). Washington State Department of Transportation. p. 2.42. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-06-11. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
- ^ Administration, US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric. "What is dredging?". oceanservice.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2018-03-19.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - doi:10.1890/130260
- Ts'ui-jung Liu(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 135–64
- ^ a b Mumbai, Srinath Perur in (2016-03-30). "Story of cities #11: the reclamation of Mumbai – from the sea, and its people?". the Guardian. Retrieved 2018-02-25.
- ^ Elyda, Corry (3 February 2017). "Jakarta clears hurdle in reclamation project". The Jakarta Post.
- ISBN 9781941806975.
- ^ "Land reclamation plan to create 800-ha 'Long Island' along Singapore's east coast, Singapore - THE BUSINESS TIMES". www.businesstimes.com.sg. 2023-11-28. Retrieved 2024-02-19.
- ^ "CNA Explains: Why does Singapore want to build a 'Long Island'?". CNA. Retrieved 2024-02-19.
- ^ "Depth charges: Land reclamation and dredging are big business". UAE: Abu Dhabi (Report). Oxford Business Group. 2013.
- ^ The references are given in the article on the topic.
- ^ "Watching Brief | Canmore". canmore.org.uk. Retrieved 2023-09-21.
- ^ Contributors, Ewan Crawford. "Dundee Esplanade - RAILSCOT". www.railscot.co.uk. Retrieved 2023-09-21.
{{cite web}}
:|last=
has generic name (help) - ^ "Waterfront Place | Maritime Trail". www.dundeemaritime.co.uk. Retrieved 2023-09-21.
- ^ "How Boston Made Itself Bigger". Culture. 2017-06-13. Archived from the original on March 2, 2021. Retrieved 2021-07-21.
- ^ "MEMÓRIA DE FLORIANÓPOLIS - A cidade de Nossa Senhora dos Aterros | ND Mais". 11 September 2016.
- ^ Vargas, Bruna (10 May 2019). "Porto Alegre dos aterros: saiba como a cidade avançou sobre o Guaíba ao longo das décadas". GZH (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 26 November 2020.
- ^ a b Guerrero, Natalia (2018-04-13). "Cómo es vivir en Santa Cruz del Islote, la isla artificial más densamente poblada del mundo". BBC News Mundo (in Spanish). Retrieved 2020-07-20.
- ^ "Segundo lote de cisternas llegó al puerto La Guaira canjeadas por petróleo". La Voz (in Spanish). 2020-05-04. Retrieved 2020-07-17.
- ^ Alejandro Durán (2016-11-02). ""Isla Paraíso" en Venezuela, causa sensación | El Sumario" (in Spanish). Retrieved 2020-07-17.
- .
- ^ "The History of Ogata-Mura". Ogata-Mura. 2008. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24.
- Environmental Site Assessment, 7000 Marina Boulevard, Brisbane, California, prepared for Argentum Internationalby Certified. Engineering & Testing Company, Boston, Massachusetts, July 15, 1993
- ^ "Florida county plans to vaporize landfill trash". USA Today. 2006-09-09. Archived from the original on June 28, 2011. Retrieved 2010-05-07.
- PMID 29018610.
- S2CID 248749118.
- ^ Wallis, Keith (February 12, 1996). "Bill seeks to protect harbour". Hong Kong Standard. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
- ^ "The REAL Dirt on Liquefaction" (PDF). ASSOCIATION OF SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA GOVERNMENTS. February 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-07-23.
- ^ Chief, Habib Toumi, Bahrain Bureau (2010-01-12). "Bahrain parliament wants solution to land reclamation issue". GulfNews. Retrieved 2018-02-04.
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Gravgaard, Anna-Katarina; Wheeler, William (18 October 2009). "Bangladesh Fights for Survival Against Climate Change". Pulitzer Center.
- ^ "Courts protect our imperiled waterway – at least for the time being". Hong Kong Standard. August 14, 2006. Archived from the original on October 19, 2012. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
- ^ DeGolyer, Michael (March 15, 2007). "Commentary: Just Looking for Answers". Hong Kong Standard. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
- ^ Ng, Michael (October 5, 2006). "Lawmaker warns of West Kowloon arts venue glut". Hong Kong Standard. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
- ^ "Japan Fact Sheet". Japan Reference. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
- ^ gov.mo
- ISBN 978-0-06-199850-8.
- ^ Makowsky, Peter; Town, Jenny; Kae, Michelle Y.; Pitz, Samantha J. (2021-12-22). "North Korea's Tideland Reclamation Efforts - 38 North: Informed Analysis of North Korea". 38 North. Retrieved 2022-05-04.
- ^ Kaiman, Jonathan (2017-05-03). "North Korea is building mysterious artificial islands that would be perfect for missile launches". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2022-05-04.
- ^ "Philippine Reclamation Authority". pea.gov.ph. Archived from the original on 2016-05-06.
- ^ Koh Gui Qing (12 April 2005). "Singapore Finds it Hard to Expand Without Sand". PlanetArk – via Wild Singapose.
- CIA. 1 September 2010. section Transnational issues. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
disputes persist with Malaysia over […] extensive land reclamation works
- ^ Charles Fairbairn (2017-04-04). "Auckland International Airport: A work in progress". Contractor Magazine.
- ^ Wellington City Council — Off to a flying start with Wellington Airport
- .
- ^ "150 years of news: How reclamations shaped Wellington". Stuff. 6 April 2015. Retrieved 2017-12-13.
- Port City Colombo - Wikipedia
- ^ Halkett, D.J. (October 2012). "ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF THE PROPOSED CAPE TOWN INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION CENTRE 2 ON ERWEN 192 , 245, 246 AND THE REMAINDER OF ERF 192, "SALAZAR SQUARE", ROGGEBAAI, CAPE TOWN FORESHORE" (PDF). sahra.org.za. p. 18. Retrieved 26 August 2019.
- ^ "UAE Dredging Company Gulf Cobla Delivers Maldives Airport Land Reclamation for Expansion Project - International Dredging Review - May-June 2017". dredgemag.com. 26 July 2017. Retrieved 2017-12-13.
References
- Wordie, Jason (18 April 1999). "Land-grabbing titans who changed HK's profit for good". The Standard. Hong Kong. Archived from the original on May 22, 2011. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
- MacKinnon, J.; Verkuil, Y.I.; Murray, N.J. (2012), IUCN situation analysis on East and Southeast Asian intertidal habitats, with particular reference to the Yellow Sea (including the Bohai Sea), Occasional Paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 47, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN, p. 70, ISBN 9782831712550, archived from the originalon 2014-06-24
- Murray, N.J.; Clemens, R.S.; Phinn, S.R.; Possingham, H.P.; Fuller, R.A. (2014), "Tracking the rapid loss of tidal wetlands in the Yellow Sea" (PDF), Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 12 (5): 267–272, doi:10.1890/130260
- http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/bahrain/bahrain-parliament-wants-solution-to-land-reclamation-issue-1.567052