Language family

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Contemporary distribution (2005 map) of the world's major language families (in some cases geographic groups of families). This map includes only primary families i.e. branches are excluded.
See Distribution of languages on Earth for greater detail.

A language family is a group of

regional dialects of the proto-language spoken by different speech communities undergoing different language changes and thus becoming distinct languages from each other.[2]

The language families with the most speakers are the

Niger-Congo families, contain hundreds of different languages,[3] while some languages, termed isolates
, are not known to be related to any other languages and therefore constitute a family consisting of only one language.

Membership of languages in a language family is established by research in comparative linguistics. Genealogically related languages can be identified by their shared retentions; that is, they share systematic similarities that cannot be explained as due to chance, or to effects of language contact (such as borrowing or convergence), and therefore must be features inherited from their shared common ancestor. However, some sets of languages may in fact be derived from a common ancestor but have diverged enough from each other that their relationship is no longer detectable; and some languages have not been studied in enough detail to be classified, and therefore their family membership is unknown.

Major language families

Estimates of the number of language families in the world may vary widely. According to

living human languages distributed in 142 different language families.[4][5] Lyle Campbell (2019) identifies a total of 406 independent language families, including isolates.[6]

Ethnologue 24 (2021) lists the following families that contain at least 1% of the 7,139 known languages in the world:[7]

  1. Niger–Congo
    (1,542 languages) (21.7%)
  2. Austronesian (1,257 languages) (17.7%)
  3. Trans–New Guinea (482 languages) (6.8%)
  4. Sino-Tibetan (455 languages) (6.4%)
  5. Indo-European (448 languages) (6.3%)
  6. Australian (381 languages) (5.4%)
  7. Afro-Asiatic
    (377 languages) (5.3%)
  8. Nilo-Saharan (206 languages) (2.9%)
  9. Oto-Manguean (178 languages) (2.5%)
  10. Austroasiatic (167 languages) (2.3%)
  11. Tai–Kadai
    (91 languages) (1.3%)
  12. Dravidian (86 languages) (1.2%)
  13. Tupian (76 languages) (1.1%)

Glottolog 4.7 (2022) lists the following as the largest families, of 8,565 languages (other than sign languages, pidgins, and unclassifiable languages):[8]

  1. Atlantic–Congo (1,408 languages)
  2. Austronesian (1,273 languages)
  3. Indo-European (584 languages)
  4. Sino-Tibetan (501 languages)
  5. Afro-Asiatic
    (379 languages)
  6. Nuclear Trans–New Guinea (317 languages)
  7. Pama–Nyungan
    (250 languages)
  8. Oto-Manguean (181 languages)
  9. Austroasiatic (158 languages)
  10. Tai–Kadai
    (95 languages)
  11. Dravidian (82 languages)
  12. Arawakan (77 languages)
  13. Mande (75 languages)
  14. Tupian (71 languages)

Language counts can vary significantly depending on what is considered a dialect; for example Lyle Campbell counts only 27 Otomanguean languages, although he, Ethnologue and Glottolog also disagree as to which languages belong in the family.

Genetic relationship

Two languages have a genetic relationship, and belong to the same language family, if both are descended from a common ancestor through the process of language change, or one is descended from the other. The term and the process of language evolution are independent of, and not reliant on, the terminology, understanding, and theories related to genetics in the biological sense, so, to avoid confusion, some linguists prefer the term genealogical relationship.[9][10]: 184 

An example of linguistic genetic relationship would be among the Romance languages, such as Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian and many others, all descended from the spoken Latin of ancient Rome.[note 1][11]

There is a remarkably similar pattern shown by the linguistic tree and the genetic tree of human ancestry[12] that was verified statistically.[13] Languages interpreted in terms of the putative phylogenetic tree of human languages are transmitted to a great extent vertically (by ancestry) as opposed to horizontally (by spatial diffusion).[14]

Establishment

In some cases, the shared derivation of a group of related languages from a common ancestor is directly attested in the historical record. For example, this is the case for the Romance language family, wherein Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, and French are all descended from Latin, as well as for the North Germanic language family, including Danish, Swedish, Norwegian and Icelandic, which have shared descent from Ancient Norse. Latin and ancient Norse are both attested in written records, as are many intermediate stages between those ancestral languages and their modern descendants.

In other cases, genetic relationships between languages are not directly attested. For instance, the Romance languages and the North Germanic languages are also related to each other, being subfamilies of the

Proto-Indo-European; however, no direct evidence of Proto-Indo-European or its divergence into its descendant languages survives. In cases such as these, genetic relationships are established through use of the comparative method
of linguistic analysis.

In order to test the hypothesis that two languages are related, the comparative method begins with the collection of pairs of words that are hypothesized to be cognates: i.e., words in related languages that are derived from the same word in the shared ancestral language. Pairs of words that have similar pronunciations and meanings in the two languages are often good candidates for hypothetical cognates. The researcher must rule out the possibility that the two words are similar merely due to chance, or due to one having borrowed the words from the other (or from a language related to the other). Chance resemblance is ruled out by the existence of large collections of pairs of words between the two languages showing similar patterns of phonetic similarity. Once coincidental similarity and borrowing have been eliminated as possible explanations for similarities in sound and meaning of words, the remaining explanation is common origin: it is inferred that the similarities occurred due to descent from a common ancestor, and the words are actually cognates, implying the languages must be related.[15]

Linguistic interference and borrowing

When languages are in

Indo-European languages
) and between languages that have no genetic relationship.

Complications

Some exceptions to the simple genetic relationship model of languages include language isolates and mixed, pidgin and creole languages.

Mixed languages, pidgins and creole languages constitute special genetic types of languages. They do not descend linearly or directly from a single language and have no single ancestor.

Isolates are languages that cannot be proven to be genealogically related to any other modern language. As a corollary, every language isolate also forms its own language family — a genetic family which happens to consist of just one language. One often cited example is Basque, which forms a language family on its own; but there are many other examples outside Europe. On the global scale, the site Glottolog counts a total of 427 language families in the world, including 182 isolates.[16]

Monogenesis

One controversial theory concerning the genetic relationships among languages is

monogenesis, the idea that all known languages, with the exceptions of creoles, pidgins and sign languages, are descendant from a single ancestral language.[17] If that is true, it would mean all languages (other than pidgins, creoles, and sign languages) are genetically related, but in many cases, the relationships may be too remote to be detectable. Alternative explanations for some basic observed commonalities between languages include developmental theories, related to the biological development of the capacity for language as the child grows from newborn.[citation needed
]

Structure of a family

A language family is a

Proto-Indo-European
, the common ancestor of the Indo-European family. Within a large family, subfamilies can be identified through "shared innovations": members of a subfamily will share features that represent retentions from their more recent common ancestor, but were not present in the overall proto-language of the larger family.

Some

taxonomists restrict the term family to a certain level, but there is little consensus on how to do so. Those who affix such labels also subdivide branches into groups, and groups into complexes. A top-level (i.e., the largest) family is often called a phylum or stock. The closer the branches are to each other, the more closely the languages will be related. This means if a branch of a proto-language is four branches down and there is also a sister language
to that fourth branch, then the two sister languages are more closely related to each other than to that common ancestral proto-language.

The term macrofamily or superfamily is sometimes applied to proposed groupings of language families whose status as phylogenetic units is generally considered to be unsubstantiated by accepted historical linguistic methods.

Dialect continua

Some close-knit language families, and many branches within larger families, take the form of dialect continua in which there are no clear-cut borders that make it possible to unequivocally identify, define, or count individual languages within the family. However, when the differences between the speech of different regions at the extremes of the continuum are so great that there is no mutual intelligibility between them, as occurs in Arabic, the continuum cannot meaningfully be seen as a single language.

A speech variety may also be considered either a language or a dialect depending on social or political considerations. Thus, different sources, especially over time, can give wildly different numbers of languages within a certain family.

Japonic language family rather than dialects of Japanese, the Japanese language itself was considered a language isolate
and therefore the only language in its family.

Isolates

Most of the world's languages are known to be related to others. Those that have no known relatives (or for which family relationships are only tentatively proposed) are called language isolates, essentially language families consisting of a single language. There are an estimated 129 language isolates known today.[18] An example is Basque. In general, it is assumed that language isolates have relatives or had relatives at some point in their history but at a time depth too great for linguistic comparison to recover them.

A language isolate is classified based on the fact that enough is known about the isolate to compare it genetically to other languages but no common ancestry or relationship is found with any other known language.[18]

A language isolated in its own branch within a family, such as

Mapudungun, the Mapuche language from the Araucanían language family in Chile.[clarification needed] A language may be said to be an isolate currently but not historically if related but now extinct relatives are attested. The Aquitanian language, spoken in Roman times, may have been an ancestor of Basque, but it could also have been a sister language to the ancestor of Basque. In the latter case, Basque and Aquitanian would form a small family together. Ancestors are not considered to be distinct members of a family.[citation needed
]

Proto-languages

A proto-language can be thought of as a mother language (not to be confused with a

mother tongue[19]) being the root from which all languages in the family stem. The common ancestor of a language family is seldom known directly since most languages have a relatively short recorded history. However, it is possible to recover many features of a proto-language by applying the comparative method, a reconstructive procedure worked out by 19th century linguist August Schleicher. This can demonstrate the validity of many of the proposed families in the list of language families. For example, the reconstructible common ancestor of the Indo-European language family is called Proto-Indo-European
. Proto-Indo-European is not attested by written records and so is conjectured to have been spoken before the invention of writing.

Visual representation

An example of a language tree, containing the Mayan languages

A common visual representation of a language family is given by a genetic language tree. The

Koreanic languages should be included or not.[21]

The wave model has been proposed as an alternative to the tree model.[10] The wave model uses isoglosses to group language varieties; unlike in the tree model, these groups can overlap. While the tree model implies a lack of contact between languages after derivation from an ancestral form, the wave model emphasizes the relationship between languages that remain in contact, which is more realistic.[10] Historical glottometry is an application of the wave model, meant to identify and evaluate genetic relations in linguistic linkages.[10][22]

Other classifications of languages

Sprachbund

A sprachbund is a geographic area having several languages that feature common linguistic structures. The similarities between those languages are caused by language contact, not by chance or common origin, and are not recognized as criteria that define a language family. An example of a sprachbund would be the Indian subcontinent.[23]

Shared innovations, acquired by borrowing or other means, are not considered genetic and have no bearing with the language family concept. It has been asserted, for example, that many of the more striking features shared by Italic languages (Latin, Oscan, Umbrian, etc.) might well be "areal features". However, very similar-looking alterations in the systems of long vowels in the West Germanic languages greatly postdate any possible notion of a proto-language innovation (and cannot readily be regarded as "areal", either, since English and continental West Germanic were not a linguistic area). In a similar vein, there are many similar unique innovations in Germanic, Baltic and Slavic that are far more likely to be areal features than traceable to a common proto-language. But legitimate uncertainty about whether shared innovations are areal features, coincidence, or inheritance from a common ancestor, leads to disagreement over the proper subdivisions of any large language family.

Contact languages

The concept of language families is based on the historical observation that languages develop

lateral gene transfer. Quite distantly related languages may affect each other through language contact, which in extreme cases may lead to languages with no single ancestor, whether they be creoles or mixed languages. In addition, a number of sign languages
have developed in isolation and appear to have no relatives at all. Nonetheless, such cases are relatively rare and most well-attested languages can be unambiguously classified as belonging to one language family or another, even if this family's relation to other families is not known.

Language contact can lead to the development of new languages from the mixture of two or more languages for the purposes of interactions between two groups who speak different languages. Languages that arise in order for two groups to communicate with each other to engage in commercial trade or that appeared as a result of colonialism are called

pidgin. Pidgins are an example of linguistic and cultural expansion caused by language contact. However, language contact can also lead to cultural divisions. In some cases, two different language speaking groups can feel territorial towards their language and do not want any changes to be made to it. This causes language boundaries and groups in contact are not willing to make any compromises to accommodate the other language.[25]

See also

Notes

References

  1. . Retrieved 26 January 2017.
  2. . Retrieved 26 January 2017.
  3. ^ a b "What are the largest language families?". Ethnologue. 25 May 2019.
  4. ^ "How many languages are there in the world?". Ethnologue. 3 May 2016. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
  5. ^ "What are the largest language families?". Ethnologue. 25 May 2019. Retrieved 3 March 2020.
  6. S2CID 166394477
    .
  7. ^ "Welcome to the 24th edition". Ethnologue. 22 February 2021.
  8. ^ "Glottolog 4.7 -". glottolog.org. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
  9. . p. 222.
  10. ^ .
  11. ^ Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International, 2013.
  12. PMID 23077256
    .
  13. .
  14. .
  15. ^ Campbell, Lyle (2013). Historical Linguistics. MIT Press.
  16. ^ Cf. Language families, Glottolog.
  17. ^ Nichols, Johanna. Monogenesis or Polygenesis: A Single Ancestral Language for All Humanity? Ch. 58 of The Oxford Handbook of Language Evolution, ed. by Maggie Tallerman and Kathleen Rita Gibson. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2012. 558–72. Print.
  18. ^
    ISSN 2377-1666
    .
  19. .
  20. ^ Edzard, Lutz. Polygenesis, Convergence, and Entropy: An Alternative Model of Linguistic Evolution Applied to Semitic Linguistics. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998. Print.
  21. ^ Georg, Stefan, Peter A. Michalove, Alexis Manaster Ramer, and Paul J. Sidwell. Telling General Linguists about Altaic. Journal of Linguistics 35.1 (1999): 65–98. Print.
  22. ^ Kalyan, Siva; François, Alexandre (2018). "Freeing the Comparative Method from the tree model: A framework for Historical Glottometry" (PDF). In Kikusawa, Ritsuko; Reid, Laurie (eds.). Let's Talk about Trees: Genetic Relationships of Languages and Their Phylogenic Representation. Senri Ethnological Studies. Vol. 98. Ōsaka: National Museum of Ethnology. pp. 59–89.
  23. ^ Joseph, Brian (2017). "The Balkan Sprachbund" (PDF). linguisticsociety.org. Retrieved 2 October 2020.
  24. PMID 24375688
    .
  25. ^ "Languages in Contact | Linguistic Society of America". www.linguisticsociety.org. Retrieved 2 October 2020.

Further reading

External links