Languages of the Soviet Union
This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. (October 2008) |
Languages of Soviet Union | |
---|---|
Official | Russian |
Regional | Armenian, Azerbaijani, Belarusian, Estonian, Georgian, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Latvian, Lithuanian, Moldovan (Romanian), Tajik, Turkmen, Ukrainian, Uzbek |
Minority | Several minority languages. See distribution and status section for a full list. |
Foreign | English, German |
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The languages of the Soviet Union consist of hundreds of different languages and dialects from several different language groups.
In 1922, it was decreed that all nationalities in the
Language policy
Background
Before the Bolshevik Revolution, Russian was the official language for the Russian Empire, with the exception of a few permitted languages in autonomous regions as Poland, Finland, and the Baltic provinces. Regional languages were discouraged or forbidden, as was the case of Ukrainian between 1876 and 1905. There was no explicit plan to enable non-Russians to learn Russian, and there was no possibility for other ethnic groups to develop their own culture and language.
In this period, some individual efforts developed written forms for some of these languages, but they had limited effect and they were focused on missionary activities. In the case of languages with written tradition, as
Soviet language policy
In 1914
However, the Soviet Union faced the problem of unifying the country, and for that reason, Russian was selected as the common language to facilitate communication between members of different ethnic groups.[2]
In 1975, Brezhnev said "under developed socialism, when the economies in our country have melted together in a coherent economic complex; when there is a new historical concept—the Soviet people—it is an objective growth in the Russian language's role as the language of international communications when one builds Communism, in the education of the new man! Together with one's own mother tongue one will speak fluent Russian, which the Soviet people have voluntarily accepted as a common historical heritage and contributes to a further stabilization of the political, economic and spiritual unity of the Soviet people."[This quote needs a citation]
Developing writing systems
Few of the languages of the Soviet state had written forms. One of the first priorities of the Soviet state was the creation of writing systems and the development of literacy programs. New or modified writing systems were adopted for over half of the languages spoken in the territory during the early Post-revolutionary years.[2] In some particular cases, preparatory work was required before the creation of an orthography due to the lack of previous linguistic analysis, as in the case of languages of the Far North.
When a language already had a writing system, there were attempts for making it easier to learn and accessible. As part of this policy, in 1918
Writing systems based on the Arabic script caused major problems because they were poorly adapted to indicate phonemic differences that are found in Turkic languages or North-East Caucasian languages. A first attempt tried to create a simplified form of Arabic script. However, the task was abandoned. Instead, the Latin alphabet was used for all languages of the Soviet Union without a traditional alphabetical writing system, avoiding the impression that the policy was a Russification attempt.[2]
Written forms were developed for several languages with a very small number of speakers, such as the Finno-Ugric languages
Distribution and status
Although the USSR did not have de jure an official language over most of its history, until 1990,[4] and Russian was merely defined as the language of interethnic communication (Russian: язык межнационального общения), it assumed de facto the role of official language.[5] For its role and influence in the USSR, see Russification.
On a second level were the languages of the other 14
Of these fourteen languages, two are often considered varieties of other languages: Tajik of Persian, and Moldovan of Romanian. Strongly promoted use of Cyrillic in many republics however, combined with lack of contact, led to the separate development of the literary languages. Some of the former Soviet republics, now independent states, continue to use the Cyrillic alphabet at present (such as Kyrgyzstan), while others have opted to use the Latin alphabet instead (such as Turkmenistan and Moldova – although the unrecognized Transnistria officially uses the Cyrillic alphabet).
The
Some smaller languages with very dwindling small communities, like Livonian, were neglected, and weren't present either in education or in publishing.[citation needed]
Several languages of non-
Language Family | Language | Official in | Distribution | Status[6] |
---|---|---|---|---|
Indo-European > Slavic > East Slavic | Russian | Soviet Union | Spoken in all republics | Safe |
Ukrainian | Ukrainian SSR | Ukrainian SSR, Russian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Estonian SSR, Moldavian SSR, Georgian SSR | Safe | |
Belarusian | Byelorussian SSR | Byelorussian SSR, Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Latvian SSR, Lithuanian SSR | Potentially Vulnerable | |
Rusyn | Ukrainian SSR | Endangered/Unsafe | ||
Indo-European > Slavic > West Slavic | Polish | Ukrainian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Estonian SSR | ||
Slovak | Ukrainian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Georgian SSR | Potentially Vulnerable | ||
Indo-European > Slavic > South Slavic | Bulgarian | Ukrainian SSR, Moldavian SSR | Potentially Vulnerable | |
Indo-European > Baltic | Latvian | Latvian SSR | Latvian SSR | Safe |
Latgalian | Latvian SSR | Potentially Vulnerable | ||
Lithuanian | Lithuanian SSR | Lithuanian SSR | Safe | |
Indo-European > Germanic > North Germanic | Norwegian | Russian SSR | ||
Swedish | Estonian SSR,
Ukrainian SSR |
(Estonian Swedish) Critically Endangered | ||
Indo-European > Germanic > West Germanic | German | Volga German ASSR
|
Russian SSR,
Ukrainian SSR, Estonian SSR, Kazakh SSR |
|
Indo-European > Germanic > West Germanic > High German | Yiddish | Jewish AO | Russian SSR,
Ukrainian SSR, Byelorussian SSR |
Potentially Vulnerable |
Indo-European > Germanic > West Germanic > North Sea Germanic | Plautdietsch | Kazakh SSR | ||
Indo-European > Romance > Romanian | Moldovan (Romanian) | Moldavian ASSR
|
Moldavian SSR, Ukrainian SSR | Safe |
Indo-European > Romance > Italo-Western | Italian | Ukrainian SSR | ||
Indo-European > Albanian | Albanian | Ukrainian SSR | ||
Indo-European > Hellenic > Attic-Ionic | Pontic Greek | Russian SSR,
Ukrainian SSR, Georgian SSR, Armenian SSR, Kazakh SSR |
Definitely Endangered | |
Armenian
|
Eastern Armenian | Armenian SSR
Nagorno-Karabakh AO
|
Armenian SSR | Safe |
Western Armenian | Armenian SSR | Potentially Vulnerable | ||
Armenian & Romani
|
Lomavren | Armenian SSR | Critically Endangered | |
Indo-European > Indo-Aryan > Romani | Baltic Romani | Russian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Ukrainian SSR,
Estonian SSR, Latvian SSR, Lithuanian SSR |
Endangered/Unsafe | |
Sinte Romani | Kazakh SSR | |||
Northern Vlax Romani | Ukrainian SSR, Moldovian SSR | Potentially Vulnerable | ||
Northern Balkan Romani | Ukrainian SSR, Moldovian SSR | Potentially Vulnerable | ||
Southern Central Romani | Ukrainian SSR | Potentially Vulnerable | ||
Indo-European > Indo-Aryan | Parya | Tajik SSR,
Uzbek SSR |
Definitely Endangered | |
Indo-European > Iranian > West Iranian | Tajik | Tajik SSR | Tajik SSR | Potentially Vulnerable |
Bukharian Dialect (Judeo-Tajik) | Tajik SSR,
Uzbek SSR |
Definitely Endangered | ||
Kurmanji
(Northern Kurdish) |
Azerbaijan SSR,
Russian SSR, Armenian SSR, Georgian SSR, |
Definitely Endangered | ||
Tat | Dagestan ASSR
|
Azerbaijan SSR,
Russian SSR |
Severely Endangered | |
Juhuri
(Judeo-Tat) |
Azerbaijan SSR,
Russian SSR |
Endangered/Unsafe | ||
Talysh | Azerbaijan SSR | Potentially Vulnerable | ||
Indo-European > Iranian > East Iranian > Scythian | Ossetian | North Ossetian ASSR
South Ossetian AO
|
Georgian SSR,
Russian SSR |
Endangered/Unsafe |
Yaghnobi | Tajik SSR | Endangered/Unsafe | ||
Indo-European > Iranian > East Iranian > Scythian/Pamiri | Wakhi | Tajik SSR | Endangered/Unsafe | |
Indo-European > Iranian > East Iranian > Pamiri | Rushani | Tajik SSR | Endangered/Unsafe | |
Shughni | Tajik SSR | Endangered/Unsafe | ||
Yazghulami | Tajik SSR | Endangered/Unsafe | ||
Bartangi | Tajik SSR | Endangered/Unsafe | ||
Ishkashimi | Tajik SSR | Endangered/Unsafe | ||
Khufi | Tajik SSR | Endangered/Unsafe | ||
Sanglechi | Tajik SSR | Endangered/Unsafe | ||
Kartvelian | Georgian | Georgian SSR | Georgian SSR | Safe |
Kivruli/Gruzinic Dialect
(Judeo-Georgian) |
Georgian SSR | Endangered/Unsafe | ||
Svan | Georgian SSR,
Russian SSR |
Endangered/Unsafe | ||
Mingrelian | Georgian SSR,
Russian SSR |
Definitely Endangered | ||
Laz | Georgian SSR | Endangered/Unsafe | ||
Northwest Caucasian | Abkhaz | Abkhaz ASSR | Georgian SSR | Potentially Vulnerable |
Abaza | Russian SSR | Endangered/Unsafe | ||
Kabardian
(East Circassian) |
Kabardino-Balkarian ASSR
|
Russian SSR | Potentially Vulnerable | |
Adyghe
(West Circassian) |
Russian SSR | Endangered/Unsafe | ||
Ubykh | Russian SSR | Extinct | ||
Northeast Caucasian > Nakh | Chechen | Checheno-Ingush ASSR
Dagestan ASSR
|
Russian SSR,
Azerbaijan SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Kirghiz SSR, Kazakh SSR, Georgian SSR |
Potentially Vulnerable |
Ingush | Checheno-Ingush ASSR
|
Russian SSR,
Kazakh SSR, Uzbek SSR, Turkmen SSR |
Potentially Vulnerable | |
Bats | Georgian SSR | Severely Endangered | ||
Northeast Caucasian > Avar-Andic | Avar | Dagestan ASSR
|
Russian SSR,
Ukrainian SSR, Georgian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR, Kazakh SSR |
Potentially Vulnerable |
Andi | Russian SSR | Endangered/Unsafe | ||
Tindi | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | ||
Bagvalal | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | ||
Akhvakh | Russian SSR,
Azerbaijan SSR |
Definitely Endangered | ||
Karata-Tukita | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | ||
Botlikh | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | ||
Godoberi | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | ||
Chamalal | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | ||
Northeast Caucasian > Dargin | Dargwa | Dagestan ASSR
|
Russian SSR | Potentially Vulnerable |
Kaitag | Russian SSR | |||
Kubachi | Russian SSR | |||
Itsari | Russian SSR | |||
Chirag | Russian SSR | Severely Endangered | ||
Northeast Caucasian > Khinalug | Khinalug | Azerbaijan SSR | Definitely Endangered | |
Northeast Caucasian > Lak | Lak | Dagestan ASSR
|
Russian SSR | Potentially Vulnerable |
Northeast Caucasian > Lezgic | Archi | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | |
Lezgian | Dagestan ASSR
|
Russian SSR,
Azerbaijan SSR |
Potentially Vulnerable | |
Tabasaran | Dagestan ASSR
|
Russian SSR,
Ukrainian SSR |
Potentially Vulnerable | |
Aghul | Russian SSR,
Azerbaijan SSR |
Definitely Endangered | ||
Rutul | Russian SSR,
Azerbaijan SSR |
Endangered/Unsafe | ||
Tsakhur | Russian SSR,
Azerbaijan SSR |
Endangered/Unsafe | ||
Udi | Russian SSR,
Azerbaijan SSR, Georgian SSR |
Definitely Endangered | ||
Kryts | Azerbaijan SSR | |||
Jek | Azerbaijan SSR | |||
Budukh | Azerbaijan SSR | Definitely Endangered | ||
Northeast Caucasian > Tsezic | Tsez | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | |
Bezhta | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | ||
Hunzib | Russian SSR,
Georgian SSR |
Definitely Endangered | ||
Khwarshi | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | ||
Hinuq | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | ||
Balto-Finnic
|
Estonian | Estonian SSR | Estonian SSR | Safe |
Võro | Estonian SSR | Endangered/Unsafe | ||
Seto Dialect | Estonian SSR | |||
Karelian | Karelo-Finnish SSR | Karelo-Finnish SSR,
Russian SSR |
Definitely Endangered | |
Finnish | Karelo-Finnish SSR | Karelo-Finnish SSR,
Russian SSR |
Safe | |
Ingrian | Russian SSR,
Karelo-Finnish SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Estonian SSR, Kazakh SSR |
Severely Endangered | ||
Ludic | Karelo-Finnish SSR,
Russian SSR |
|||
Votic | Karelo-Finnish SSR,
Russian SSR |
Critically Endangered | ||
Livonian | Latvian SSR | Critically Endangered | ||
Veps | Karelo-Finnish SSR,
Russian SSR |
Severely Endangered | ||
Uralic > Sámi | Kildin Sámi | Russian SSR | Severely Endangered | |
Ter Sámi | Russian SSR | Critically Endangered | ||
Skolt Sámi | Russian SSR | Critically Endangered | ||
Akkala Sámi | Russian SSR | Extinct | ||
Uralic > Permic | Komi-Zyrian | Komi ASSR
|
Russian SSR | Potentially Vulnerable |
Komi-Permyak
|
Komi-Permyak Autonomous Okrug | Russian SSR | Endangered/Unsafe | |
Komi-Yazva | Russian SSR | Severely Endangered | ||
Udmurt | Udmurt ASSR
|
Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Estonian SSR,
Latvian SSR, Kazakh SSR |
Definitely Endangered | |
Mari | Mari ASSR
|
Russian SSR | Potentially Vulnerable | |
Uralic > Mordvinic | Erzya | Mordovian ASSR
|
Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered |
Moksha | Mordovian ASSR
|
Russian SSR | Endangered/Unsafe | |
Uralic > Samoyedic | Tundra Nenets | Nenets AO
Yamalo-Nenets AO
|
Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered |
Forrest Nenets | Russian SSR | Severely Endangered | ||
Enets | Russian SSR | Critically Endangered | ||
Selkup | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | ||
Nganasan | Russian SSR | Severely Endangered | ||
Kamassian | Russian SSR | Extinct | ||
Uralic > Ugric > Khanty | Salekhard (Northern) Khanty | Russian SSR | Severely Endangered | |
Surgut(Eastern) Khanty | Russian SSR | Critically Endangered | ||
Southern Khanty | Russian SSR | Extinct | ||
Mansi
|
Central Mansi
|
Russian SSR | Severely Endangered | |
Northern Mansi
|
Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | ||
Southern Mansi
|
Russian SSR | Extinct | ||
Uralic > Ugric | Hungarian | Ukrainian SSR | Safe | |
Turkic > Oghuric | Chuvash | Chuvash ASSR
|
Russian SSR | Potentially Vulnerable |
Turkic > Kipchak | Kazakh | Kazakh SSR | Kazakh SSR | Potentially Vulnerable |
Kyrgyz | Kirghiz SSR | Kirghiz SSR | ||
Tatar | Tatar ASSR
|
Russian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Ukrainian SSR,
Kazakh SSR, Kirghiz SSR |
Potentially Vulnerable | |
Crimean Tatar | Crimean ASSR
|
Russian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Lithuanian SSR,
Uzbek SSR, Kirghiz SSR |
Severely Endangered | |
Dobrujan Tatar
|
Ukrainian SSR, Moldavian SSR | |||
Siberian Tatar | Russian SSR | Endangered/Unsafe | ||
Bashkir | Bashkir ASSR
|
Russian SSR | Potentially Vulnerable | |
Urum | Ukrainian SSR, Georgian SSR | Definitely Endangered | ||
Krymchak | Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR | Critically Endangered | ||
Karaim | Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Lithuanian SSR | Critically Endangered | ||
Nogai | Dagestan ASSR
|
Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR,
Kazakh SSR, Uzbek SSR |
Definitely Endangered | |
Kumyk | Dagestan ASSR
|
Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR,
Byelorussian SSR, Latvian SSR, Kazakh SSR, Uzbek SSR |
Potentially Vulnerable | |
Karachay-Balkar | Kabardino-Balkarian ASSR
|
Russian SSR | Potentially Vulnerable | |
Karakalpak | Karakalpak ASSR
|
Kazakh SSR,
Uzbek SSR, Turkmen SSR |
Potentially Vulnerable | |
Southern Altai | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | ||
Fergana | Uzbek SSR,
Kirghiz SSR, Tajik SSR |
Extinct | ||
Turkic > Karluk | Uzbek | Uzbek SSR | Uzbek SSR | Safe |
Uighur | Uzbek SSR,
Kirghiz SSR, Tajik SSR |
Potentially Vulnerable | ||
Ili Turki | Kazakh SSR | Critically Endangered | ||
Chagatai | ||||
Turkic > Oghuz | Turkmen | Turkmen SSR | Turkmen SSR | Potentially Vulnerable |
Azerbaijani | Dagestan ASSR
|
Azerbaijan SSR | Potentially Vulnerable | |
Meskhetian Dialect
(Turkish) |
Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Georgian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR, Kazakh SSR,
Uzbek SSR, Kirghiz SSR |
|||
Gagauz | Moldavian SSR, Ukrainian SSR | Potentially Vulnerable | ||
Turkic > Siberian Turkic | Northern Altai | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | |
Khakas | Khakas AO
|
Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | |
Tuvan | Tuvan ASSR
|
Russian SSR | ||
Shor | Russian SSR | Severely Endangered | ||
Yakut | Yakut ASSR
|
Russian SSR | ||
Dolgan | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | ||
Chulym | Russian SSR | Severely Endangered | ||
Tofa | Russian SSR | |||
Soyot | Russian SSR | |||
Afro-Asiatic > Semitic | Central Asian Arabic | Uzbek SSR,
Tajik SSR |
Definitely Endangered | |
Neo-Aramaic | Armenian SSR, Georgian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR | Safe | ||
Mongolic | Buryat | Buryat ASSR
|
Russian SSR | |
Kalmyk | Kalmyk ASSR
|
Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | |
Oirat | Kirghiz SSR | |||
Khamnigan Mongol | Russian SSR | |||
Mongolian | Russian SSR | Potentially Vulnerable | ||
Tungusic | Evenki | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | |
Even | Russian SSR | Severely Endangered | ||
Nanai | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | ||
Negidal | Russian SSR | Severely Endangered | ||
Kili | Russian SSR | Severely Endangered | ||
Oroch | Russian SSR | Severely Endangered | ||
Udege | Russian SSR | |||
Uilta | Russian SSR | |||
Ulch | Russian SSR | Critically Endangered | ||
Chukotko-Kamchatkan | Chukchi | Chukotka AO | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered |
Koryak | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | ||
Alyutor | Russian SSR | Critically Endangered | ||
Kerek | Russian SSR | Extinct | ||
Itelmen | Russian SSR | Severely Endangered | ||
Language Isolate | Nivkh | Russian SSR | Severely Endangered | |
Yukaghir | Tundra Yukaghir | Russian SSR | Critically Endangered | |
Southern Yukaghir | Russian SSR | Critically Endangered | ||
Inuit-Aleut | Siberian Yupik | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | |
Aleut | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | ||
Naukan | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | ||
Old Sirenik | Russian SSR | Extinct | ||
Yeniseian | Ket | Russian SSR | Definitely Endangered | |
Language Isolate | Ainu | Russian SSR | Extinct in Russia, Critically Endangered in Japan | |
Sino-Tibetan | Dungan | Russian SSR,
Kazakh SSR, Uzbek SSR |
Endangered/Unsafe | |
Taz Dialect (Mandarin) | Russian SSR | Extinct | ||
Koreanic | Koryo-Mar | Uzbek SSR,
Kazakh SSR, Turkmen SSR, Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR |
Distribution of Russian in 1989
Ethnic group | Total (in thousands) |
Speakers (in thousands) | Percentage | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
L1 | L2 | Total | L1 | L2 | Total | ||
Russians | 145,155 | 144,836 | 219 | 145,155 | 99.8 | 0.2 | 100 |
Non-Russian | 140,587 | 18,743 | 68,791 | 87,533 | 13.3 | 48.9 | 62.3 |
Ukrainians | 44,186 | 8,309 | 24,820 | 33,128 | 18.8 | 56.2 | 75.0 |
Uzbeks | 16,698 | 120 | 3,981 | 4,100 | 0.7 | 23.8 | 24.6 |
Belarusians | 10,036 | 2,862 | 5,487 | 8,349 | 28.5 | 54.7 | 83.2 |
Kazakhs | 8,136 | 183 | 4,917 | 5,100 | 2.2 | 60.4 | 62.7 |
Azerbaijanis | 6,770 | 113 | 2,325 | 2,439 | 1.7 | 34.3 | 36.0 |
Tatars | 6,649 | 1,068 | 4,706 | 5,774 | 16.1 | 70.8 | 86.8 |
Armenians | 4,623 | 352 | 2,178 | 2,530 | 7.6 | 47.1 | 54.7 |
Tajiks | 4,215 | 35 | 1,166 | 1,200 | 0.8 | 27.7 | 28.5 |
Georgians | 3,981 | 66 | 1,316 | 1,382 | 1.7 | 33.1 | 34.7 |
Moldovans | 3,352 | 249 | 1,805 | 2,054 | 7.4 | 53.8 | 61.3 |
Lithuanians | 3,067 | 55 | 1,163 | 1,218 | 1.8 | 37.9 | 39.7 |
Turkmens | 2,729 | 27 | 757 | 783 | 1.0 | 27.7 | 28.7 |
Kyrgyz | 2,529 | 15 | 890 | 905 | 0.6 | 35.2 | 35.8 |
Germans | 2,039 | 1,035 | 918 | 1,953 | 50.8 | 45.0 | 95.8 |
Chuvash | 1,842 | 429 | 1,199 | 1,628 | 23.3 | 65.1 | 88.4 |
Latvians | 1,459 | 73 | 940 | 1,013 | 5.0 | 64.4 | 69.4 |
Bashkirs | 1,449 | 162 | 1,041 | 1,203 | 11.2 | 71.8 | 83.0 |
Jews | 1,378 | 1,194 | 140 | 1,334 | 86.6 | 10.1 | 96.7 |
Mordvins | 1,154 | 377 | 722 | 1,099 | 32.7 | 62.5 | 95.2 |
Poles | 1,126 | 323 | 495 | 817 | 28.6 | 43.9 | 72.6 |
Estonians | 1,027 | 45 | 348 | 393 | 4.4 | 33.9 | 38.2 |
Others | 12,140 | 1,651 | 7,479 | 9,130 | 13.6 | 61.6 | 75.2 |
Total | 285,743 | 163,898 | 68,791 | 232,689 | 57.4 | 24.1 | 81.4 |
See also
- The Languages of the Peoples of the USSR
- Index of Soviet Union-related articles
- Education in the Soviet Union
- Korenizatsiya
- Russification
- Languages of Russia
- Languages of Ukraine
- Languages of Belarus
- Languages of Estonia
- Languages of Moldova
- Languages of Armenia
- Languages of Azerbaijan
- Languages of Kazakhstan
- Languages of Uzbekistan
- Languages of Kyrgyzstan
- Languages of Tajikistan
References
- ^ Lenin, Vladimir. "Lenin: Is a Compulsory Official Language Needed?". www.marxists.org. Retrieved 2020-12-11.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Comrie, Bernard (1981). The Languages of the Soviet Union. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Comrie, B., & Stone, G. (1978). The Russian language since the revolution. Oxford [Eng.]: Clarendon Press.
- USSR and the constituent republics had rights to declare additional state languages within their jurisdictions. See Article 4 of the Law on Languages of Nations of USSR. Archived 2016-05-08 at the Wayback Machine(in Russian)
- ISBN 0-521-23230-9
- ^ "UNESCO World Atlas of Languages".
- ^ "All-Soviet Census 1989. Population by ethnic group and language". Demoscope Weekly (in Russian).
Sources
- ISBN 0-521-29877-6(pb)
- E. Glyn Lewis. Multilingualism in the Soviet Union: Aspects of Language Policy and Its Implementation. Mouton Publishers, 1971.
- 5т.
Further reading
- "Language Policies in Present-Day Central Asia". BIRGIT N. SCHLYTER. Stockholm University. International Journal on Multicultural Societies (IJMS)Vol. 3, No. 2, 2001 "The Human Rights of Linguistic Minorities and Language Policies".
External links
- Soviet Language Policy in Central Asia by Mark Dickens