Lapis lazuli

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(Redirected from
Lapis-lazuli
)
Not to be confused with Lazulite.
For the Fabergé egg, see Lapis Lazuli (Fabergé egg).
"Lazuli" redirects here. For other uses, see Lazuli (disambiguation).
Lapis lazuli
Metamorphic rock
Lapis lazuli in its natural state, with pyrite inclusions (specimen from Afghanistan)
Composition
PrimaryLazurite
SecondaryA mixture of other minerals, often including pyrite

Lapis lazuli (

funeral mask of Tutankhamun (1341–1323 BC).[8]

By the end of the

scribes, perhaps as a result of licking their painting brushes while producing medieval texts and manuscripts.[9]

Major sources

Mines in northeast Afghanistan continue to be a major source of lapis lazuli. Important amounts are also produced from mines west of

Inca used to carve artifacts and jewelry. Smaller quantities are mined in Pakistan, Italy, Mongolia, the United States, and Canada.[10]

Etymology

Lapis is the

Arabic لازورد lāzaward, itself from the Persian لاژورد lāžavard/lāževard and/or لاجورد lājevard. It means "sky" or "heaven"; so this is a "stone (of/from) the sky" or "stone (of/from) heaven".[11] For example, in the following Persian poem by Ferdowsi
:

As the sun struck the dome of lazuli,

A golden curtain was drawn, most truly.

Historically, it was mined in the Badakhshan region of upper Afghanistan. Lazulum is etymologically related to the color blue, and used as a root for the word for blue in several languages, including Spanish and Portuguese azul as well as English azure.[11][12]

Science and uses

Composition

The most important mineral component of lapis lazuli is

löllingite
geyerite.

Lapis lazuli usually occurs in crystalline

contact metamorphism
.

Color

Lapis lazuli seen through a microscope (x240 magnification)

The intense blue color is due to the presence of the trisulfur radical anion (S•−
3) in the crystal.[15] The presence of disulfur (S•−
2) and tetrasulfur (S•−
4) radicals can shift the color towards yellow or red, respectively.[16] These radical anions substitute for the chloride anions within the sodalite structure.[17] The S•−
3 radical anion exhibits a visible absorption band in the range 595–620 nm with high molar absorptivity, leading to its bright blue color.[18]

Sources

Lapis lazuli is found in limestone in the

Indus Valley civilisation, approximately 2000 BC, the Harappan colony, now known as Shortugai, was established near the lapis mines.[7]

In addition to the Afghan deposits, lapis is also extracted in the

Burma, Pakistan, Canada, Italy, India, and in the United States in California and Colorado.[10]

Uses and substitutes

Lapis takes an excellent polish and can be made into jewellery,carvings, boxes, mosaics, ornaments, small statues, and vases. Interior items and finishing buildings can be also made with lapis. Two of the columns framing the iconostasis in Saint Isaac's Cathedral in Saint Petersburg are built with lapis. During the Renaissance, lapis was ground and processed to make the pigment ultramarine for use in frescoes and oil painting. Its usage as a pigment in oil paint largely ended during the early 19th century, when a chemically identical synthetic variety became available.

Lapis lazuli is commercially synthesized or simulated by the Gillson process, which is used to make artificial ultramarine and hydrous zinc phosphates.[20] Spinel or sodalite, or dyed jasper or howlite, can be substituted for lapis.[21]

  • Crystals of lazurite (the main mineral in lapis lazuli) from the Sar-i Sang Mining District in Afghanistan
    Crystals of lazurite (the main mineral in lapis lazuli) from the Sar-i Sang Mining District in Afghanistan
  • A polished block of lapis lazuli
    A polished block of lapis lazuli
  • Natural ultramarine pigment made from ground lapis lazuli. During the Middle Ages and Renaissance it was the most expensive pigment available (gold being second) and was often reserved for depicting the robes of Angels or the Virgin Mary
    Natural ultramarine pigment made from ground lapis lazuli. During the
    Virgin Mary
  • 19th-century lapis lazuli and diamond pendant
    19th-century lapis lazuli and diamond pendant

History and art

In the ancient world

Further information: Art of ancient Egypt § Lapis lazuli
Ancient Egyptian cult image of Ptah; 945–600 BC; lapis lazuli; height of the figure: 5.2 cm, height of the dais: 0.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)

Lapis lazuli has been mined in Afghanistan and exported to the Mediterranean world and South Asia since the

Indus Valley dating to the 7th millennium BC. Quantities of these beads have also been found at 4th millennium BC settlements in Northern Mesopotamia, and at the Bronze Age site of Shahr-e Sukhteh in southeast Iran (3rd millennium BC). A dagger with a lapis handle, a bowl inlaid with lapis, amulets, beads, and inlays representing eyebrows and beards, were found in the Royal Tombs of the Sumerian city-state of Ur from the 3rd millennium BC.[22]

Lapis was also used in ancient Persia, Mesopotamia by the

Babylonians for seals and jewelry. It is mentioned several times in the Mesopotamian poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh (17th–18th century BC), one of the oldest known works of literature. The Statue of Ebih-Il, a 3rd millennium BC statue found in the ancient city-state of Mari in modern-day Syria, now in the Louvre, uses lapis lazuli inlays for the irises of the eyes.[24]

In ancient Egypt, lapis lazuli was a favorite stone for amulets and ornaments such as

Predynastic Egyptian site Naqada (3300–3100 BC). At Karnak, the relief carvings of Thutmose III (1479–1429 BC) show fragments and barrel-shaped pieces of lapis lazuli being delivered to him as tribute. Powdered lapis was used as eyeshadow by Cleopatra.[7][25]

Jewelry made of lapis lazuli has also been found at Mycenae attesting to relations between the Myceneans and the developed civilizations of Egypt and the East.[26]

Pliny the Elder wrote that lapis lazuli is "opaque and sprinkled with specks of gold".  Because the stone combines the blue of the heavens and golden glitter of the sun, it was emblematic of success in the old Jewish tradition. In the early Christian tradition lapis lazuli was regarded as the stone of Virgin Mary.

In late classical times and as late as the Middle Ages, lapis lazuli was often called sapphire (sapphirus in Latin, sappir in Hebrew),[27] though it had little to do with the stone today known as the blue corundum variety sapphire. In his book on stones, the Greek scientist Theophrastus described "the sapphirus, which is speckled with gold," a description which matches lapis lazuli.[28]

Vermeer

There are many references to "sapphire" in the Old Testament, but most scholars agree that, since sapphire was not known before the Roman Empire, they most likely are references to lapis lazuli. For instance, Exodus 24:10: "And they saw the God of Israel, and there was under his feet as it were a paved work of a sapphire stone..." (KJV). The words used in the Latin Vulgate Bible in this citation are "quasi opus lapidis sapphirini", the terms for lapis lazuli.[29] Modern translations of the Bible, such as the New Living Translation Second Edition,[30] refer to lapis lazuli in most instances instead of sapphire.

Vermeer

Johannes Vermeer used lapis lazuli paint, in the Girl with a Pearl Earring painting.[31][32]

Yeats

The poet, William Butler Yeats, describes a figurine of sculpted lapis lazuli in a poem entitled "Lapis Lazuli". The sculpture of three men from China, a bird, and a musical instrument serves in the poem as a reminder of "gaiety" in the face of tragedy.[33]

Gallery

  • A bovine with eyes decorated with lapis lazuli. Fertile Crescent, Sumerian, 889-853 B.C.
    A bovine with eyes decorated with lapis lazuli. Fertile Crescent, Sumerian, 889-853 B.C.
  • Sumerian bald clean-shaven male worshipper head, 2600–2500 BC; gypsum, shell, lapis lazuli and bitumen; from Nippur (Iraq); Museum of the Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures (Chicago)
    Sumerian bald clean-shaven male worshipper head, 2600–2500 BC; gypsum, shell, lapis lazuli and bitumen; from Nippur (Iraq); Museum of the Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures (Chicago)
  • Sumerian necklace beads; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: 54 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
    Sumerian necklace beads; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: 54 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
  • Sumerian necklace; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: 22.5 cm; from the Royal Cemetery at Ur (Iraq); Metropolitan Museum of Art
    Sumerian necklace; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: 22.5 cm; from the Royal Cemetery at Ur (Iraq); Metropolitan Museum of Art
  • Ancient Egyptian scarab finger ring; 1850–1750 BC; lapis lazuli scarab set in gold plate and on a gold wire ring lapis-lazuli; diameter: 2.5 cm, the scarab: 1.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
    Ancient Egyptian scarab finger ring; 1850–1750 BC; lapis lazuli scarab set in gold plate and on a gold wire ring lapis-lazuli; diameter: 2.5 cm, the scarab: 1.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
  • Neo-Babylonian conical seal; 7th–6th century BC; lapis lazuli; height: 2.7 cm, diameter: 2.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
    Neo-Babylonian conical seal; 7th–6th century BC; lapis lazuli; height: 2.7 cm, diameter: 2.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
  • Ancient Egyptian plaque with an Eye of Horus; 664–332 BC; lapis lazuli; length: 1.8 cm, width: 1.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
    Ancient Egyptian plaque with an Eye of Horus; 664–332 BC; lapis lazuli; length: 1.8 cm, width: 1.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
  • Greek or Roman ring stone; lapis lazuli; 2.1 x 1.6 x 0.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
    Greek or Roman ring stone; lapis lazuli; 2.1 x 1.6 x 0.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
  • Roman bead ornament; gold and lapis lazuli; 3 × 1.8 × 0.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
    Roman bead ornament; gold and lapis lazuli; 3 × 1.8 × 0.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
  • 20th century silver ring with polished lapis oval; 2 x 2.4 x 1 cm
    20th century silver ring with polished lapis oval; 2 x 2.4 x 1 cm
  • Elephant carved from lapis lazuli. Length 7 cm.
    Elephant carved from lapis lazuli. Length 7 cm.
  • Large lapis lazuli specimen from Afghanistan's Hindu Kush mountains. National Museum of Natural History (Washington, D.C.)
    Large lapis lazuli specimen from Afghanistan's Hindu Kush mountains. National Museum of Natural History (Washington, D.C.)

See also

References

  1. ^ "lapis lazuli". Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Retrieved 6 April 2024.
  2. ISBN 978-1-85709-442-8
    )
  3. ISBN 978-1-57506-042-2. Archived
    from the original on 2015-10-03. Retrieved 2020-11-08.
  4. ^ a b "Excavation Bhirrana | ASI Nagpur". excnagasi.in. Archived from the original on 2020-08-04. Retrieved 2020-08-21.
  5. S2CID 4425978
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  6. JSTOR 43610686
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  7. ^ a b c Bowersox & Chamberlin 1995
  8. ^ Alessandro Bongioanni & Maria Croce
  9. ^ Zhang, Sarah (January 9, 2019). "Why a Medieval Woman Had Lapis Lazuli Hidden in Her Teeth". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on May 8, 2020. Retrieved May 9, 2020.
  10. ^ a b "Lapis Lazuli". www.gemstone.org. International Colored Gemstone Association. Archived from the original on 2020-03-21. Retrieved 2020-02-13.
  11. ^
    ISBN 978-0-444-52239-9
    .
  12. ^ Weekley, Ernest (1967). "azure". An Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. New York: Dover Publications. p. 97.
  13. ^ "Lapis lazuli: Mineral information, data and localities". www.mindat.org. Archived from the original on 2020-01-29. Retrieved 2020-02-13.
  14. ^ "Lazurite: Mineral information, data and localities". www.mindat.org. Archived from the original on 2020-04-03. Retrieved 2020-02-13.
  15. PMID 20087497. Archived
    from the original on 2017-09-22. Retrieved 2018-04-20.
  16. S2CID 102593589
    .
  17. ISSN 1460-4744. Archived
    from the original on 2022-06-16. Retrieved 2022-06-16.
  18. PMID 23628896. Archived
    from the original on 2022-06-16. Retrieved 2022-06-16.
  19. ^ Oldershaw 2003
  20. ISBN 0-7506-6449-5
    .
  21. ^ Lapis lazuli Archived 2019-10-27 at the Wayback Machine, Gemstone Buzz.
  22. ^
    ISBN 978-1-57506-042-2. Archived
    from the original on 2015-10-03. Retrieved 2020-11-08.
  23. ^ Monthly, Jewellery (2015-04-02). "A complete guide to Gemstones". Jewellery & Watch Magazine | Jewellery news, jewellery fashion and trends, jewellery designer reviews, jewellery education, opinions | Wrist watch reviews. Archived from the original on 2017-08-28. Retrieved 2017-08-28.
  24. Musée du Louvre. Archived
    from the original on 30 December 2012. Retrieved 10 October 2012.
  25. ^ [1] Archived 2013-10-04 at the Wayback Machine Moment of Science site, Indiana Public Media
  26. ^ Alcestis Papademetriou, Mycenae, John S. Latsis Public Benefit Foundation, 2015, p. 32.
  27. ^ Schumann, Walter (2006) [2002]. "Sapphire". Gemstones of the World. trans. Annette Englander & Daniel Shea (Newly revised & expanded 3rd ed.). New York: Sterling. p. 102. In antiquity and as late as the Middle Ages, the name sapphire was understood to mean what is today described as lapis lazuli.
  28. ^ Theophrastus, On Stones (De Lapidibus) – IV-23, translated by D.E. Eichholtz, Oxford University Press, 1965.
  29. ISBN 978-1-4797-9644-1
  30. ISBN 978-1-4143-3763-0
  31. ^ "Vermeer's Palette: Natural Ultramarine". Archived from the original on 2021-11-23. Retrieved 2022-06-23.
  32. S2CID 211540737
    .
  33. ISSN 0011-1570
    .

Bibliography

External links

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