Late Middle Ages
The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval period was the
Around 1350, centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt. A series of
Despite the crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress in the arts and sciences. Following a renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman texts that took root in the High Middle Ages, the Italian Renaissance began. The absorption of Latin texts had started before the Renaissance of the 12th century through contact with Arabs during the Crusades, but the availability of important Greek texts accelerated with the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West, particularly Italy.[4]
Combined with this influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing, which facilitated the dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. Those two things would later lead to the Reformation. Toward the end of the period, the Age of Discovery began. The expansion of the Ottoman Empire cut off trading possibilities with the East. Europeans were forced to seek new trading routes, leading to the Spanish expedition under Christopher Columbus to the Americas in 1492 and Vasco da Gama's voyage to Africa and India in 1498. Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations.
The changes brought about by these developments have led many scholars to view this period as the end of the
Historiography and periodization
Part of a series on |
Human history Human Era |
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↑ Prehistory (Stone Age) (Pleistocene epoch) |
↓ Future |
The term "late Middle Ages" refers to one of the three periods of the Middle Ages, along with the early Middle Ages and the High Middle Ages. Leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodization in his History of the Florentine People (1442).[5] Flavio Biondo used a similar framework in Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire (1439–1453). Tripartite periodization became standard after the German historian Christoph Cellarius published Universal History Divided into an Ancient, Medieval, and New Period (1683).
For 18th-century historians studying the 14th and 15th centuries, the central theme was the Renaissance, with its rediscovery of ancient learning and the emergence of an individual spirit.[6] The heart of this rediscovery lies in Italy, where, in the words of Jacob Burckhardt, "Man became a spiritual individual and recognized himself as such."[7] This proposition was later challenged, and it was argued that the 12th century was a period of greater cultural achievement.[8]
As economic and demographic methods were applied to the study of history, the trend was increasingly to see the late Middle Ages as a period of recession and crisis. Belgian historian Henri Pirenne continued the subdivision of Early, High, and late Middle Ages in the years around World War I.[9] Yet it was his Dutch colleague, Johan Huizinga, who was primarily responsible for popularising the pessimistic view of the late Middle Ages, with his book The Autumn of the Middle Ages (1919).[10] To Huizinga, whose research focused on France and the Low Countries rather than Italy, despair and decline were the main themes, not rebirth.[11][12]
Modern historiography on the period has reached a consensus between the two extremes of innovation and crisis. It is now generally acknowledged that conditions were vastly different north and south of the Alps, and the term "late Middle Ages" is often avoided entirely within Italian historiography.
History
The limits of
The situation gradually led to the consolidation of central authority and the emergence of the
Northern Europe
After the failed union of Sweden and Norway of 1319–1365, the pan-Scandinavian Kalmar Union was instituted in 1397.[19] The Swedes were reluctant members of the Danish-dominated union from the start. In an attempt to subdue the Swedes, King Christian II of Denmark had large numbers of the Swedish aristocracy killed in the Stockholm Bloodbath of 1520. Yet this measure only led to further hostilities, and Sweden broke away for good in 1523.[20] Norway, on the other hand, became an inferior party of the union and remained united with Denmark until 1814.
Northwest Europe
The death of Alexander III of Scotland in 1286 threw the country into a succession crisis, and the English king, Edward I, was brought in to arbitrate. Edward claimed overlordship over Scotland, leading to the Wars of Scottish Independence.[24] The English were eventually defeated, and the Scots were able to develop a stronger state under the Stewarts.[25]
From 1337, England's attention was largely directed towards France in the Hundred Years' War.[26] Henry V's victory at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 briefly paved the way for a unification of the two kingdoms, but his son Henry VI soon squandered all previous gains.[27] The loss of France led to discontent at home. Soon after the end of the war in 1453, the dynastic struggles of the Wars of the Roses (c. 1455–1485) began, involving the rival dynasties of the House of Lancaster and House of York.[28]
The war ended in the accession of
Western Europe
The
Meanwhile,
Central Europe
The
He had the greatest military potential of the 14th century with his enormous armies (often over 100,000 men). Meanwhile,
Louis did not leave a son as heir after his death in 1382. Instead, he named as his heir the young prince
King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary led the largest army of mercenaries of the time, the Black Army of Hungary, which he used to conquer Bohemia and Austria and to fight the Ottoman Empire. After Italy, Hungary was the first European country where the Renaissance appeared.[45] However, the glory of the Kingdom ended in the early 16th century, when the King Louis II of Hungary was killed in the Battle of Mohács in 1526 against the Ottoman Empire. Hungary then fell into a serious crisis and was invaded, ending its significance in central Europe during the medieval era.
Eastern Europe
The state of
Under the reign of
Southeast Europe
The Byzantine Empire had for a long time dominated the eastern Mediterranean in politics and culture.[51] By the 14th century, however, it had almost entirely collapsed into a tributary state of the Ottoman Empire, centered on the city of Constantinople and a few enclaves in Greece.[52] With the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Byzantine Empire was permanently extinguished.[53]
The
Southwest Europe
The 1469 marriage of
Late Medieval European society
Around 1300–1350, the
As the European population was severely reduced, land became more plentiful for the survivors, and labour was consequently more expensive.
The upheavals caused by the Black Death left certain minority groups particularly vulnerable, especially the
While the Jews were suffering persecution, one group that probably experienced increased empowerment in the late Middle Ages was women. The great social changes of the period opened up new possibilities for women in the fields of commerce, learning, and religion.[82] Yet at the same time, women were also vulnerable to incrimination and persecution, as belief in witchcraft increased.[82]
The accumulation of social, environmental, and health-related problems also led to an increase in interpersonal violence in most parts of Europe. Population increase, religious intolerance, famine, and disease led to an increase in violent acts in vast parts of medieval society. One exception to this was North-Eastern Europe, whose population managed to maintain low levels of violence due to a more organized society resulting from extensive and successful trade.[83]
Up until the mid-14th century, Europe had experienced steadily increasing
Military history
Medieval warfare |
---|
Through battles such as
The introduction of
Changes also took place within the recruitment and composition of armies. The use of the
Parallel to the military developments emerged also a constantly more elaborate
Christian conflict and reform
The Papal Schism
The French crown's increasing dominance over the
At the Council of Constance (1414–1418), the Papacy was once more united in Rome.[104] Even though the unity of the Western Church was to last for another hundred years, and though the Papacy was to experience greater material prosperity than ever before, the Great Schism had done irreparable damage.[105] The internal struggles within the Church had impaired her claim to universal rule and promoted anti-clericalism among the people and their rulers, paving the way for reform movements.[106]
Protestant Reformation
Though many of the events were outside the traditional time period of the Middle Ages, the end of the unity of the Western Church (the
The marriage of Richard II of England to Anne of Bohemia established contacts between the two nations and brought Lollard ideas to her homeland.[111] The teachings of the Czech priest Jan Hus were based on those of John Wycliffe, yet his followers, the Hussites, were to have a much greater political impact than the Lollards.[112] Hus gained a great following in Bohemia, and in 1414, he was requested to appear at the Council of Constance to defend his cause.[113] When he was burned as a heretic in 1415, it caused a popular uprising in the Czech lands.[114] The subsequent Hussite Wars fell apart due to internal quarrels and did not result in religious or national independence for the Czechs, but both the Catholic Church and the German element within the country were weakened.[115]
To many secular rulers, the Protestant Reformation was a welcome opportunity to expand their wealth and influence.
Trade and commerce
Medieval merchant routes |
---|
The increasingly dominant position of the Ottoman Empire in the eastern Mediterranean presented an impediment to trade for the Christian nations of the west, who in turn started looking for alternatives.[124] Portuguese and Spanish explorers found new trade routes – south of Africa to India, as well as across the Atlantic Ocean to America.[125] As Genoese and Venetian merchants opened up direct sea routes with Flanders, the Champagne fairs lost much of their importance.[126]
At the same time, English wool export shifted from raw wool to processed cloth, resulting in losses for the cloth manufacturers of the Low Countries.[127] In the Baltic and North Sea, the Hanseatic League reached the peak of their power in the 14th century but started going into decline in the fifteenth.[128]
In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, a process took place – primarily in Italy but partly also in the Empire – that historians have termed a "commercial revolution".
With the financial expansion, trading rights became more jealously guarded by the commercial elite. Towns saw the growing power of
Though there is no doubt that the demographic crisis of the 14th century caused a dramatic fall in production and commerce in absolute terms, there has been a vigorous historical debate over whether the decline was greater than the fall in population.[133] While the older orthodoxy held that the artistic output of the Renaissance was a result of greater opulence, more recent studies have suggested that there might have been a so-called "depression of the Renaissance".[134] In spite of convincing arguments for the case, the statistical evidence is simply too incomplete for a definite conclusion to be made.[135]
Arts and sciences
In the 14th century, the predominant academic trend of scholasticism was challenged by the humanist movement. Though primarily an attempt to revitalise the classical languages, the movement also led to innovations within the fields of science, art, and literature, helped by impulses from Byzantine scholars who had to seek refuge in the west after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.[136]
In science, classical authorities like Aristotle were challenged for the first time since antiquity. Within the arts, humanism took the form of the Renaissance. Though the 15th-century Renaissance was a highly localised phenomenon – limited mostly to the city-states of northern Italy – artistic developments were taking place also further north, particularly in the Netherlands.[a]
Philosophy, science and technology
The predominant school of thought in the 13th century was the
This new approach liberated scientific speculation from the dogmatic restraints of Aristotelian science and paved the way for new approaches. Particularly within the field of theories of
Certain technological inventions of the period – whether of
Visual arts and architecture
A precursor to
The period saw several important technical innovations, like the principle of linear perspective found in the work of Masaccio and later described by Brunelleschi.[148] Greater realism was also achieved through the scientific study of anatomy, championed by artists like Donatello.[149] This can be seen particularly well in his sculptures, inspired by the study of classical models.[150] As the centre of the movement shifted to Rome, the period culminated in the High Renaissance masters da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael.[151]
The ideas of the Italian Renaissance were slow to cross the Alps into northern Europe, but important artistic innovations were made also in the Low Countries.[152] Though not – as previously believed – the inventor of oil painting, Jan van Eyck was a champion of the new medium and used it to create works of great realism and minute detail.[153] The two cultures influenced each other and learned from each other, but painting in the Netherlands remained more focused on textures and surfaces than the idealized compositions of Italy.[154]
In northern European countries,
Literature
The most important development of late medieval literature was the ascendancy of the
The new literary style spread rapidly and in France, influenced such writers as Eustache Deschamps and Guillaume de Machaut.[164] In England, Geoffrey Chaucer helped establish Middle English as a literary language with his Canterbury Tales, which contained a wide variety of narrators and stories (including some translated from Boccaccio).[165] The spread of vernacular literature eventually reached as far as Bohemia and the Baltic, Slavic, and Byzantine worlds.[166]
Music
Music was an important part of both secular and spiritual culture, and in the universities, it made up part of the quadrivium of the liberal arts.[167] From the early 13th century, the dominant sacred musical form had been the motet, a composition with text in several parts.[168] From the 1330s and onwards emerged the polyphonic style, which was a more complex fusion of independent voices.[169] Polyphony had been common in the secular music of the Provençal troubadours. Many of these had fallen victim to the 13th-century Albigensian Crusade, but their influence reached the papal court at Avignon.[170]
The main representatives of the new style, often referred to as
Theatre
In the
At the end of the late Middle Ages, professional actors began to appear in
The end of medieval drama came about due to a number of factors, including the weakening power of the
After the Middle Ages
After the end of the late Middle Ages period, the
Ottomans and Europe
Ottomans and Europe | |
---|---|
By the end of the 15th century, the
Hunyadi succeeded during the Siege of Belgrade in 1456 against the Ottomans, the biggest victory against that empire in decades. This battle became a real Crusade against the Muslims, as the peasants were motivated by the Franciscan friar Saint John of Capistrano, who came from Italy predicating Holy War. The effect that it created in that time was one of the main factors that helped in achieving the victory. However the premature death of the Hungarian Lord left Pannonia defenseless and in chaos. In an extremely unusual event for the Middle Ages, Hunyadi's son, Matthias, was elected as King of Hungary by the Hungarian nobility. For the first time, a member of an aristocratic family (and not from a royal family) was crowned.
King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary (1458–1490) was one of the most prominent figures of the period, directing campaigns to the West, conquering Bohemia in answer to the pope's call for help against the Hussite Protestants. Also, in resolving political hostilities with the German emperor Frederick III of Habsburg, he invaded his western domains. Matthew organized the Black Army of mercenary soldiers; it was considered as the biggest army of its time. Using this powerful tool, the Hungarian king led wars against the Turkish armies and stopped the Ottomans during his reign. After the death of Matthew, and with end of the Black Army, the Ottoman Empire grew in strength and Central Europe was defenseless. At the Battle of Mohács, the forces of the Ottoman Empire annihilated the Hungarian army and Louis II of Hungary drowned in the Csele Creek while trying to escape. The leader of the Hungarian army, Pál Tomori, also died in the battle. This is considered to be one of the final battles of Medieval times.
Timeline
Dates are approximate, consult particular articles for details Middle Ages Themes Other themes
14th century
- 1305: William Wallace was executed
- 1307: The Knights Templar were destroyed
- 1309: Beginning of Avignon papacy
- 1310: Dante began the Divine Comedy
- 1314: Battle of Bannockburn
- 1315–1317 Great Famine
- 1321–1328 Byzantine civil war
- 1328: First War of Scottish Independence ends
- 1337: The Hundred Years' War begins
- 1346: Stephen Dušan established a short-lived Serbian Empire
- 1347: The Black Death begins
- 1347: University of Praguewas founded
- 1348: Giovanni Villani finishes work on Nuova Cronica
- 1348–1349: Byzantine–Genoese War
- 1362: Battle of Blue Waters
Lithuania defeats Golden Horde. Principality of Kiev becomes part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
- 1364: Jagiellonian University was founded
- 1371: Battle of Maritsa—first substantial Ottoman victory in Europe; partition of Bulgaria
- 1376: Avignon Papacy ended
- 1380: Battle of Kulikovo
- 1380: The Canterbury Tales
- 1381: Peasants' Revolt (England)
- 1381: John Wycliffe translated the Bible
- 1385: Union of Krewo, initiation of the Polish–Lithuanian union
- 1385: Battle of Aljubarrota
- 1386: University of Heidelbergwas founded
- 1389: Battle of Kosovo—Serbian and Bosnian forces defeated by the Ottomans
- 1342–1392: Partitioning of the Kingdom of Rus (Galicia) between Poland and Lithuania (Galicia–Volhynia Wars)
- 1396: Battle of Nicopolis and first Ottoman conquest in Europe
- 1397: Kalmar Union
15th century
- 1402: Battle of Ankara
- 1409: Venetian Dalmatia
- 1410: Battle of Grunwald
- 1415: Conquest of Ceuta
- 1415: Battle of Agincourt
- 1415: Jan Hus was burned at the stake
- 1417: The Council of Constance
- 1419–1434: Hussite Wars in Bohemia
- 1429: Battle of Orléans
- 1431: Joan of Arc was burned at the stake
- 1434: The Medici family in Florence
- 1439: Johannes Gutenberg first used movable type printing in Europe
- 1444: Battle of Varna
- 1445: Battle of Suzdal
- 1453: Constantinople falls to Ottoman conquest
- 1455: Gutenberg Bible printed in Mainz
- 1456: Siege of Belgrade
- 1461: The Empire of Trebizond fell to the Turks
- 1469: Catholic Monarchs
- 1470: Battle of Lipnic
- 1474–1477: Burgundian Wars
- 1478: Novgorod
- 1478: The Catholic Monarchs established the Spanish Inquisition
- 1479: Battle of Breadfield
- 1480: Great Stand on the Ugra River. The end of the Tatar-Mongol yoke over the Russian principalities.
- 1485: Thomas Malory (Le Morte d'Arthur)
- 1492: Alhambra Decree
- 1492: fall of Granada
- 1492: Christopher Columbus reached the "New World"
- 1494: Treaty of Tordesillas
- 1497–1498: Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama's first voyage reached India after circumnavigating Africa
- 1499: Battle of Zonchio
Gallery
-
Peasants in fieldsTrès Riches Heures.
See also
- List of basic medieval history topics
- Timeline of the Middle Ages
- Church and state in medieval Europe
- Jews in the Middle Ages
- Gothic book illustration
Notes
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- ^ Hollister, pp. 332–333; Jones, p. 15.
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- ^ Pounds, p. 483.
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- ^ Hans Thijssen (2003). "Condemnation of 1277". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 2017-03-11. Retrieved 2008-04-21.
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- ^ Grant, pp. 95–7.
- ^ Grant, pp. 112–3.
- ^ Jones, pp. 11–2; Koenigsberger, pp. 297–8; Nicholas, p. 165.
- ^ Grant, p. 160; Koenigsberger, p. 297.
- ^ Cantor, p. 433; Koenigsberger, p. 363.
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- ^ Cantor, p. 554; Nichols, pp. 159–60.
- ^ Brotton, p. 67; Burke, p. 69.
- ^ Allmand (1998), p. 269; Koenigsberger, p. 376.
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- ^ Jones, p. 8.
- ^ Cantor, p. 346.
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- ^ Curtius, p. 396; Koenigsberger, p. 368; Jones, p. 258.
- ^ Curtius, p. 26; Jones, p. 258; Koenigsberger, p. 368.
- ^ Koenigsberger, p. 369.
- ^ Jones, p. 264.
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- ^ Jones, p. 9.
- ^ Allmand, p. 319; Grant, p. 14; Koenigsberger, p. 382.
- ^ Allmand, p. 322; Wilson, p. 229.
- ^ Wilson, pp. 229, 289–90, 327.
- ^ Koenigsberger, p. 381; Wilson, p. 329.
- ^ Koenigsberger, p. 383; Wilson, p. 329.
- ^ Wilson, pp. 357–8, 361–2.
- ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 86)
- ^ a b Brockett and Hildy (2003, 101-103)
Further reading
Surveys
- ISBN 978-1-13905574-1.
- ISBN 978-1-13905575-8.
- Oberman, Heiko Augustinus; Tracy, James D.; Brady, Thomas A., eds. (1994). Handbook of European History, 1400–1600: Late Middle Ages, Renaissance and Reformation. Leiden, New York: E.J. Brill. ISBN 90-04-09762-7.
- ISBN 0-06-017033-6.
- Ferguson, Wallace K. Europe in transition, 1300-1520 (1962) online.
- ISBN 0-582-49179-7.
- Hollister, C. Warren (2005). Medieval Europe: A Short History (10th ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 0-07-295515-5.
- Holmes, George, ed. (2001). The Oxford History of Medieval Europe (New ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280133-3.
- ISBN 0-14-013630-4.
- Koenigsberger, H.G. Medieval Europe 400 - 1500 (1987) excerpt
- ISBN 0-631-22888-8.
- Waley, Daniel; Denley, Peter (2001). Later Medieval Europe: 1250–1520 (3rd ed.). London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-25831-6.
Specific regions
- ISBN 0-582-07820-2.
- ISBN 0-631-18945-9.
- ISBN 0-472-08260-4.
- ISBN 0-19-821714-5.
- ISBN 0-19-821712-9.
- Mango, Cyril, ed. (2002). The Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814098-3.
- Martin, Janet (2007). Medieval Russia, 980–1584 (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85916-5.
- Najemy, John M., ed. (2004). Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300–1550 (New ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-870040-7.
- Wandycz, Piotr (2001). The Price of Freedom: A History of East Central Europe from the Middle Ages to the Present (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-25491-4.
Society
- Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (1994). Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture (Reprint ed.). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08260-4.
- Chazan, Robert (2006). The Jews of Medieval Western Christendom: 1000–1500. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-61664-6.
- ISBN 0-674-56375-1.
- Herlihy, David (1968). Medieval Culture and Society. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-88133-747-1.
- ISBN 0-691-01134-6.
- Klapisch-Zuber, Christiane (1994). A history of women in the West (New ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-40368-1.
The Black Death
- ISBN 0-85115-943-5.
- ISBN 0-7509-3202-3.
- Horrox, Rosemary (1994). The Black Death. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-3497-3.
- Shillington, Kevin (2004). Encyclopedia of African History, Volume 1 (1st ed.). Taylor & Francis, Inc.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781579582456.
- ISBN 0-7509-3202-3.
Warfare
- Allmand, Christopher (1988). The Hundred Years War: England and France at War c. 1300–c. 1450. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31923-4.
- Chase, Kenneth (2003). Firearms: A Global History to 1700. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521822749.
- Contamine, Philippe (1984). War in the Middle Ages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-13142-6.
- ISBN 0-333-53175-2.
- Davis, Paul K. (2001). 100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195143663.
- Keen, Maurice (1984). Chivalry. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03150-5.
- Verbruggen, J. F. (1997). The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages: From the Eighth Century to 1340 (2nd ed.). Woodbridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 0-85115-630-4.
Economy
- ISBN 0-415-09005-9.
- Cipolla, Carlo M., ed. (1993). The Fontana Economic History of Europe, Volume 1: The Middle Ages (2nd ed.). New York: Fontana Books. ISBN 0-85527-159-0.
- ISBN 0-521-52202-1.
- Pounds, N.J.P. (1994). An Economic History of Medieval Europe (2nd ed.). London and New York: Longman. ISBN 0-582-21599-4.
Religion
- ISBN 0-19-287647-3.
- ISBN 0-14-303538-X.
- ISBN 0-300-02477-0.
- Smith, John H. (1970). The Great Schism, 1378. London: Hamilton. ISBN 0-241-01520-0.
- ISBN 0-14-020503-9.
Arts and sciences
- ISBN 0-19-280163-5.
- ISBN 0-631-19845-8.
- ISBN 0-691-01899-5.
- ISBN 0-521-56762-9.
- Snyder, James (2004). Northern Renaissance Art: Painting, Sculpture, the Graphic Arts from 1350 to 1575 (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-189564-8.
- Welch, Evelyn (2000). Art in Renaissance Italy, 1350–1500 (reprint ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-284279-X.
- Wilson, David Fenwick (1990). Music of the Middle Ages. New York: Schirmer Books. ISBN 0-02-872951-X.