Late Middle Ages

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Late Medieval Period
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Europe and the Mediterranean region, c. 1354.
Biblia Pauperum illuminated at Erfurt around the time of the Great Famine
. Death sits astride a lion whose long tail ends in a ball of flame (Hell). Famine points to her hungry mouth.

The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval period was the

European history lasting from AD 1300 to 1500. The late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period (and in much of Europe, the Renaissance).[1]

Around 1350, centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt. A series of

Despite the crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress in the arts and sciences. Following a renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman texts that took root in the High Middle Ages, the Italian Renaissance began. The absorption of Latin texts had started before the Renaissance of the 12th century through contact with Arabs during the Crusades, but the availability of important Greek texts accelerated with the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West, particularly Italy.[4]

Combined with this influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing, which facilitated the dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. Those two things would later lead to the Reformation. Toward the end of the period, the Age of Discovery began. The expansion of the Ottoman Empire cut off trading possibilities with the East. Europeans were forced to seek new trading routes, leading to the Spanish expedition under Christopher Columbus to the Americas in 1492 and Vasco da Gama's voyage to Africa and India in 1498. Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations.

The changes brought about by these developments have led many scholars to view this period as the end of the

modern age.[citation needed] Some historians, particularly in Italy, prefer not to speak of the late Middle Ages at all but rather see the high period of the Middle Ages transitioning to the Renaissance and the modern era.[citation needed
]

Historiography and periodization

The term "late Middle Ages" refers to one of the three periods of the Middle Ages, along with the early Middle Ages and the High Middle Ages. Leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodization in his History of the Florentine People (1442).[5] Flavio Biondo used a similar framework in Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire (1439–1453). Tripartite periodization became standard after the German historian Christoph Cellarius published Universal History Divided into an Ancient, Medieval, and New Period (1683).

For 18th-century historians studying the 14th and 15th centuries, the central theme was the Renaissance, with its rediscovery of ancient learning and the emergence of an individual spirit.[6] The heart of this rediscovery lies in Italy, where, in the words of Jacob Burckhardt, "Man became a spiritual individual and recognized himself as such."[7] This proposition was later challenged, and it was argued that the 12th century was a period of greater cultural achievement.[8]

As economic and demographic methods were applied to the study of history, the trend was increasingly to see the late Middle Ages as a period of recession and crisis. Belgian historian Henri Pirenne continued the subdivision of Early, High, and late Middle Ages in the years around World War I.[9] Yet it was his Dutch colleague, Johan Huizinga, who was primarily responsible for popularising the pessimistic view of the late Middle Ages, with his book The Autumn of the Middle Ages (1919).[10] To Huizinga, whose research focused on France and the Low Countries rather than Italy, despair and decline were the main themes, not rebirth.[11][12]

Modern historiography on the period has reached a consensus between the two extremes of innovation and crisis. It is now generally acknowledged that conditions were vastly different north and south of the Alps, and the term "late Middle Ages" is often avoided entirely within Italian historiography.

nation-state, and the expansion of European influence onto the rest of the world.[14]

History

The limits of

Grand Duchy of Moscow was beginning to repel the Mongols, and the Iberian kingdoms completed the Reconquista of the peninsula and turned their attention outwards, the Balkans fell under the dominance of the Ottoman Empire.[a] Meanwhile, the remaining nations of the continent were locked in almost constant international or internal conflict.[15]

The situation gradually led to the consolidation of central authority and the emergence of the

Northern Europe

After the failed union of Sweden and Norway of 1319–1365, the pan-Scandinavian Kalmar Union was instituted in 1397.[19] The Swedes were reluctant members of the Danish-dominated union from the start. In an attempt to subdue the Swedes, King Christian II of Denmark had large numbers of the Swedish aristocracy killed in the Stockholm Bloodbath of 1520. Yet this measure only led to further hostilities, and Sweden broke away for good in 1523.[20] Norway, on the other hand, became an inferior party of the union and remained united with Denmark until 1814.

Norse colony in Greenland died out, probably under extreme weather conditions in the 15th century.[22] These conditions might have been the effect of the Little Ice Age.[23]

Northwest Europe

The Battle of Agincourt, 15th-century miniature, Enguerrand de Monstrelet

The death of Alexander III of Scotland in 1286 threw the country into a succession crisis, and the English king, Edward I, was brought in to arbitrate. Edward claimed overlordship over Scotland, leading to the Wars of Scottish Independence.[24] The English were eventually defeated, and the Scots were able to develop a stronger state under the Stewarts.[25]

From 1337, England's attention was largely directed towards France in the Hundred Years' War.[26] Henry V's victory at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 briefly paved the way for a unification of the two kingdoms, but his son Henry VI soon squandered all previous gains.[27] The loss of France led to discontent at home. Soon after the end of the war in 1453, the dynastic struggles of the Wars of the Roses (c. 1455–1485) began, involving the rival dynasties of the House of Lancaster and House of York.[28]

The war ended in the accession of

Hiberno-Norman lords in Ireland were becoming gradually more assimilated into Irish society, and the island was allowed to develop virtual independence under English overlordship.[30]

Western Europe

France in the late 15th century: a mosaic of feudal territories

The

Louis XI.[32]

Meanwhile,

Habsburg control, setting up conflict for centuries to come.[35]

Central Europe

Silver mining and processing in Kutná Hora, Bohemia, 15th century

Fugger family, held great power, on both economic and political levels.[39]

The

Louis the Great (1342–82) were marked by success.[41] The country grew wealthy as the main European supplier of gold and silver.[42]
Louis the Great led successful campaigns from Lithuania to Southern Italy, and from Poland to Northern Greece.

He had the greatest military potential of the 14th century with his enormous armies (often over 100,000 men). Meanwhile,

Poland's attention was turned eastwards, as the Commonwealth with Lithuania created an enormous entity in the region.[43] The union, and the conversion of Lithuania, also marked the end of paganism in Europe.[44]

Ruins of Beckov Castle in Slovakia

Louis did not leave a son as heir after his death in 1382. Instead, he named as his heir the young prince

Sigismund of Luxemburg. The Hungarian nobility did not accept his claim, and the result was an internal war. Sigismund eventually achieved total control of Hungary and established his court in Buda and Visegrád. Both palaces were rebuilt and improved, and were considered the richest of the time in Europe. Inheriting the throne of Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire, Sigismund continued conducting his politics from Hungary, but he was kept busy fighting the Hussites and the Ottoman Empire
, which was becoming a menace to Europe in the beginning of the 15th century.

King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary led the largest army of mercenaries of the time, the Black Army of Hungary, which he used to conquer Bohemia and Austria and to fight the Ottoman Empire. After Italy, Hungary was the first European country where the Renaissance appeared.[45] However, the glory of the Kingdom ended in the early 16th century, when the King Louis II of Hungary was killed in the Battle of Mohács in 1526 against the Ottoman Empire. Hungary then fell into a serious crisis and was invaded, ending its significance in central Europe during the medieval era.

Eastern Europe

Moscow

The state of

Grand Duchy of Moscow rose in power thereafter, winning a great victory against the Golden Horde at the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380.[47] The victory did not end Tartar rule in the region, however, and its immediate beneficiary was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which extended its influence eastwards.[48]

Under the reign of

Southeast Europe

Ottoman miniature of the siege of Belgrade in 1456

The Byzantine Empire had for a long time dominated the eastern Mediterranean in politics and culture.[51] By the 14th century, however, it had almost entirely collapsed into a tributary state of the Ottoman Empire, centered on the city of Constantinople and a few enclaves in Greece.[52] With the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Byzantine Empire was permanently extinguished.[53]

The

Lazar Hrebeljanovic was defeated by the Ottoman Army at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, where most of the Serbian nobility was killed and the south of the country came under Ottoman occupation, as much of southern Bulgaria had become Ottoman territory in the Battle of Maritsa 1371.[56] Northern remnants of Bulgaria were finally conquered by 1396, Serbia fell in 1459, Bosnia in 1463, and Albania was finally subordinated in 1479 only a few years after the death of Skanderbeg. Belgrade, a Hungarian domain at the time, was the last large Balkan city to fall under Ottoman rule, in the siege of Belgrade of 1521. By the end of the medieval period, the entire Balkan peninsula was annexed by, or became vassal to, the Ottomans.[56]

Southwest Europe

Battle of Aljubarrota between Portugal and Castile, 1385

Medici family became important promoters of the Renaissance through their patronage of the arts.[59] Other city-states in northern Italy also expanded their territories and consolidated their power, primarily Milan, Venice, and Genoa.[60] The War of the Sicilian Vespers had by the early 14th century divided southern Italy into an Aragon Kingdom of Sicily and an Anjou Kingdom of Naples.[61] In 1442, the two kingdoms were effectively united under Aragonese control.[62]

The 1469 marriage of

Henry the Navigator – gradually explored the coast of Africa, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama found the sea route to India.[65] The Spanish monarchs met the Portuguese challenge by financing the expedition of Christopher Columbus to find a western sea route to India, leading to the discovery of the Americas in 1492.[66]

Late Medieval European society

Louvre castle in Paris, c. 1410; October as depicted in the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry

Around 1300–1350, the

population of Europe to perhaps no more than a third of what it was a century earlier.[71] The effects of natural disasters were exacerbated by armed conflicts; this was particularly the case in France during the Hundred Years' War.[72] It took 150 years for the European population to regain similar levels of 1300.[73]

As the European population was severely reduced, land became more plentiful for the survivors, and labour was consequently more expensive.

Peasants' Revolt in 1381.[76] The long-term effect was the virtual end of serfdom in Western Europe.[77] In Eastern Europe, on the other hand, landowners were able to exploit the situation to force the peasantry into even more repressive bondage.[78]

The upheavals caused by the Black Death left certain minority groups particularly vulnerable, especially the

Jews,[79] who were often blamed for the calamities. Anti-Jewish pogroms were carried out all over Europe; in February 1349, 2,000 Jews were murdered in Strasbourg.[80] States were also guilty of discrimination against the Jews. Monarchs gave in to the demands of the people, and the Jews were expelled from England in 1290, from France in 1306, from Spain in 1492, and from Portugal in 1497.[81]

While the Jews were suffering persecution, one group that probably experienced increased empowerment in the late Middle Ages was women. The great social changes of the period opened up new possibilities for women in the fields of commerce, learning, and religion.[82] Yet at the same time, women were also vulnerable to incrimination and persecution, as belief in witchcraft increased.[82]

The accumulation of social, environmental, and health-related problems also led to an increase in interpersonal violence in most parts of Europe. Population increase, religious intolerance, famine, and disease led to an increase in violent acts in vast parts of medieval society. One exception to this was North-Eastern Europe, whose population managed to maintain low levels of violence due to a more organized society resulting from extensive and successful trade.[83]

Up until the mid-14th century, Europe had experienced steadily increasing

urbanisation.[84] Cities were also decimated by the Black Death, but the role of urban areas as centres of learning, commerce, and government ensured continued growth.[85] By 1500, Venice, Milan, Naples, Paris, and Constantinople each probably had more than 100,000 inhabitants.[86] Twenty-two other cities were larger than 40,000; most of these were in Italy and the Iberian peninsula, but there were also some in France, the Empire, and the Low Countries, as well as London in England.[86]

Military history

Medieval warfare
Miniature of the Battle of Crécy (1346)
Manuscript of Jean Froissart's Chronicles.

The Hundred Years' War was the scene of many military innovations.

Through battles such as

Welsh Wars, the English became acquainted with, and adopted, the highly efficient longbow.[88] Once properly managed, this weapon gave them a great advantage over the French in the Hundred Years' War.[89]

The introduction of

firearms initially had little effect in the field of battle.[91] It was through the use of cannons as siege weapons that major change was brought about; the new methods would eventually change the architectural structure of fortifications.[92]

Changes also took place within the recruitment and composition of armies. The use of the

soldiers were in particularly high demand.[95] At the same time, the period also saw the emergence of the first permanent armies. It was in Valois France, under the heavy demands of the Hundred Years' War, that the armed forces gradually assumed a permanent nature.[96]

Parallel to the military developments emerged also a constantly more elaborate

chivalric orders; the first of these was the Order of St. George, founded by Charles I of Hungary in 1325, while the best known was probably the English Order of the Garter, founded by Edward III in 1348.[100]

Christian conflict and reform

The Papal Schism

The French crown's increasing dominance over the

Papacy culminated in the transference of the Holy See to Avignon in 1309.[101] When the Pope returned to Rome in 1377, this led to the election of different popes in Avignon and Rome, resulting in the Papal Schism (1378–1417).[102] The Schism divided Europe along political lines; while France, her ally Scotland, and the Spanish kingdoms supported the Avignon Papacy, France's enemy England stood behind the pope in Rome, together with Portugal, Scandinavia, and most of the German princes.[103]

At the Council of Constance (1414–1418), the Papacy was once more united in Rome.[104] Even though the unity of the Western Church was to last for another hundred years, and though the Papacy was to experience greater material prosperity than ever before, the Great Schism had done irreparable damage.[105] The internal struggles within the Church had impaired her claim to universal rule and promoted anti-clericalism among the people and their rulers, paving the way for reform movements.[106]

Protestant Reformation

Jan Hus burnt at the stake
All Saints' Church in Wittenberg, where Martin Luther posted his Ninety-five Theses, giving rise to Protestantism

Though many of the events were outside the traditional time period of the Middle Ages, the end of the unity of the Western Church (the

Lollards, were eventually suppressed in England.[110]

The marriage of Richard II of England to Anne of Bohemia established contacts between the two nations and brought Lollard ideas to her homeland.[111] The teachings of the Czech priest Jan Hus were based on those of John Wycliffe, yet his followers, the Hussites, were to have a much greater political impact than the Lollards.[112] Hus gained a great following in Bohemia, and in 1414, he was requested to appear at the Council of Constance to defend his cause.[113] When he was burned as a heretic in 1415, it caused a popular uprising in the Czech lands.[114] The subsequent Hussite Wars fell apart due to internal quarrels and did not result in religious or national independence for the Czechs, but both the Catholic Church and the German element within the country were weakened.[115]

95 theses on the castle church of Wittenberg on October 31, 1517.[116] The immediate provocation spurring this act was Pope Leo X's renewal of the indulgence for the building of the new St. Peter's Basilica in 1514.[117] Luther was challenged to recant his heresy at the Diet of Worms in 1521.[118] When he refused, he was placed under the ban of the Empire by Charles V.[119] Receiving the protection of Frederick the Wise, he was then able to translate the Bible into German.[120]

To many secular rulers, the Protestant Reformation was a welcome opportunity to expand their wealth and influence.

Protestant and southern Catholic parts, resulting in the Religious Wars of the 16th and 17th centuries.[123]

Trade and commerce

Medieval merchant routes
Main trade routes of late medieval Europe.

  Hansa
  Venetian
  Genoese
  Venetian and Genoese
  (stippled) Overland and river routes

The increasingly dominant position of the Ottoman Empire in the eastern Mediterranean presented an impediment to trade for the Christian nations of the west, who in turn started looking for alternatives.[124] Portuguese and Spanish explorers found new trade routes – south of Africa to India, as well as across the Atlantic Ocean to America.[125] As Genoese and Venetian merchants opened up direct sea routes with Flanders, the Champagne fairs lost much of their importance.[126]

At the same time, English wool export shifted from raw wool to processed cloth, resulting in losses for the cloth manufacturers of the Low Countries.[127] In the Baltic and North Sea, the Hanseatic League reached the peak of their power in the 14th century but started going into decline in the fifteenth.[128]

In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, a process took place – primarily in Italy but partly also in the Empire – that historians have termed a "commercial revolution".

double-entry bookkeeping, which allowed for better oversight and accuracy.[130]

With the financial expansion, trading rights became more jealously guarded by the commercial elite. Towns saw the growing power of

Staple.[131] The beneficiaries of these developments would accumulate immense wealth. Families like the Fuggers in Germany, the Medicis in Italy, and the de la Poles in England and individuals like Jacques Cœur in France would help finance the wars of kings, achieving great political influence in the process.[132]

Though there is no doubt that the demographic crisis of the 14th century caused a dramatic fall in production and commerce in absolute terms, there has been a vigorous historical debate over whether the decline was greater than the fall in population.[133] While the older orthodoxy held that the artistic output of the Renaissance was a result of greater opulence, more recent studies have suggested that there might have been a so-called "depression of the Renaissance".[134] In spite of convincing arguments for the case, the statistical evidence is simply too incomplete for a definite conclusion to be made.[135]

Arts and sciences

In the 14th century, the predominant academic trend of scholasticism was challenged by the humanist movement. Though primarily an attempt to revitalise the classical languages, the movement also led to innovations within the fields of science, art, and literature, helped by impulses from Byzantine scholars who had to seek refuge in the west after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.[136]

In science, classical authorities like Aristotle were challenged for the first time since antiquity. Within the arts, humanism took the form of the Renaissance. Though the 15th-century Renaissance was a highly localised phenomenon – limited mostly to the city-states of northern Italy – artistic developments were taking place also further north, particularly in the Netherlands.[a]

Philosophy, science and technology

European output of manuscripts 500–1500. The rising trend in medieval book production saw its continuation in the period.[137]
Spread of printing by Johannes Gutenberg from Mainz in Europe in the 15th century


The predominant school of thought in the 13th century was the

John Duns Scotus, who insisted that the world of reason and the world of faith had to be kept apart. Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony – or Occam's razor – whereby a simple theory is preferred to a more complex one and speculation on unobservable phenomena is avoided.[140]
This maxim is, however, often misquoted. Occam was referring to his nominalism in this quotation. Essentially saying the theory of absolutes, or metaphysical realism, was unnecessary to make sense of the world.

This new approach liberated scientific speculation from the dogmatic restraints of Aristotelian science and paved the way for new approaches. Particularly within the field of theories of

motion, great advances were made, when such scholars as Jean Buridan, Nicole Oresme, and the Oxford Calculators challenged the work of Aristotle.[141] Buridan developed the theory of impetus as the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was an important step towards the modern concept of inertia.[142] The works of these scholars anticipated the heliocentric worldview of Nicolaus Copernicus.[143]

Certain technological inventions of the period – whether of

World Oceans and the early phases of colonialism.[144] Other inventions had a greater impact on everyday life, such as eyeglasses and the weight-driven clock.[145]

Visual arts and architecture

Urban dwelling house, late 15th century, Halberstadt, Germany

A precursor to

Giotto. Giotto was the first painter since antiquity to attempt the representation of three-dimensional reality and endow his characters with true human emotions.[146] The most important developments, however, came in 15th-century Florence. The affluence of the merchant class allowed extensive patronage of the arts, and foremost among the patrons were the Medici.[147]

The period saw several important technical innovations, like the principle of linear perspective found in the work of Masaccio and later described by Brunelleschi.[148] Greater realism was also achieved through the scientific study of anatomy, championed by artists like Donatello.[149] This can be seen particularly well in his sculptures, inspired by the study of classical models.[150] As the centre of the movement shifted to Rome, the period culminated in the High Renaissance masters da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael.[151]

The ideas of the Italian Renaissance were slow to cross the Alps into northern Europe, but important artistic innovations were made also in the Low Countries.[152] Though not – as previously believed – the inventor of oil painting, Jan van Eyck was a champion of the new medium and used it to create works of great realism and minute detail.[153] The two cultures influenced each other and learned from each other, but painting in the Netherlands remained more focused on textures and surfaces than the idealized compositions of Italy.[154]

In northern European countries,

Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence, with Giotto's clock tower, Ghiberti's baptistery gates, and Brunelleschi's cathedral dome of unprecedented proportions.[156]

Literature

Dante as portrayed by Domenico di Michelino, from a fresco painted in 1465

The most important development of late medieval literature was the ascendancy of the

romance.[158] Though Italy was later in evolving a native literature in the vernacular language, it was here that the most important developments of the period were to come.[159]

lyric poems).[162] Together, the three poets established the Tuscan dialect as the norm for the modern Italian language.[163]

The new literary style spread rapidly and in France, influenced such writers as Eustache Deschamps and Guillaume de Machaut.[164] In England, Geoffrey Chaucer helped establish Middle English as a literary language with his Canterbury Tales, which contained a wide variety of narrators and stories (including some translated from Boccaccio).[165] The spread of vernacular literature eventually reached as far as Bohemia and the Baltic, Slavic, and Byzantine worlds.[166]

Music

Medieval manuscript

Music was an important part of both secular and spiritual culture, and in the universities, it made up part of the quadrivium of the liberal arts.[167] From the early 13th century, the dominant sacred musical form had been the motet, a composition with text in several parts.[168] From the 1330s and onwards emerged the polyphonic style, which was a more complex fusion of independent voices.[169] Polyphony had been common in the secular music of the Provençal troubadours. Many of these had fallen victim to the 13th-century Albigensian Crusade, but their influence reached the papal court at Avignon.[170]

The main representatives of the new style, often referred to as

John Kukuzelis; he also introduced a system of notation widely used in the Balkans
in the following centuries.

Theatre

In the

Mystery plays were written in cycles of a large number of plays: York (48 plays), Chester (24), Wakefield (32), and Unknown (42). A larger number of plays survive from France and Germany in this period, and some type of religious drama was performed in nearly every European country in the late Middle Ages. Many of these plays contained comedy, devils, villains, and clowns.[173]

Goods, and Fellowship – only Good Deeds
goes with him to the grave.

At the end of the late Middle Ages, professional actors began to appear in

Mummers' plays, performed during the Christmas season, and court masques. These masques were especially popular during the reign of Henry VIII who had a House of Revels built and an Office of Revels established in 1545.[174]

The end of medieval drama came about due to a number of factors, including the weakening power of the

Protestant Reformation, and the banning of religious plays in many countries. Elizabeth I forbid all religious plays in 1558, and the great cycle plays had been silenced by the 1580s. Similarly, religious plays were banned in the Netherlands in 1539, the Papal States in 1547, and Paris in 1548. The abandonment of these plays destroyed the international theatre that had thereto existed and forced each country to develop its own form of drama. It also allowed dramatists to turn to secular subjects and the reviving interest in Greek and Roman theatre provided them with the perfect opportunity.[174]

After the Middle Ages

After the end of the late Middle Ages period, the

Protestant Reformation. Europeans also discovered new trading routes, as was the case with Columbus' travel to the Americas in 1492, and Vasco da Gama's circumnavigation of Africa and India
in 1498. Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations.

Ottomans and Europe

Ottomans and Europe
Saint John of Capistrano and the Hungarian armies fighting the Ottoman Empire at the Siege of Belgrade in 1456
King Matthias Corvinus's Black Army Campaign.

By the end of the 15th century, the

Pius II awarded him the title of Athleta Christi
, or Champion of Christ, for being the only hope of resisting the Ottomans from advancing to Central and Western Europe.

Hunyadi succeeded during the Siege of Belgrade in 1456 against the Ottomans, the biggest victory against that empire in decades. This battle became a real Crusade against the Muslims, as the peasants were motivated by the Franciscan friar Saint John of Capistrano, who came from Italy predicating Holy War. The effect that it created in that time was one of the main factors that helped in achieving the victory. However the premature death of the Hungarian Lord left Pannonia defenseless and in chaos. In an extremely unusual event for the Middle Ages, Hunyadi's son, Matthias, was elected as King of Hungary by the Hungarian nobility. For the first time, a member of an aristocratic family (and not from a royal family) was crowned.

King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary (1458–1490) was one of the most prominent figures of the period, directing campaigns to the West, conquering Bohemia in answer to the pope's call for help against the Hussite Protestants. Also, in resolving political hostilities with the German emperor Frederick III of Habsburg, he invaded his western domains. Matthew organized the Black Army of mercenary soldiers; it was considered as the biggest army of its time. Using this powerful tool, the Hungarian king led wars against the Turkish armies and stopped the Ottomans during his reign. After the death of Matthew, and with end of the Black Army, the Ottoman Empire grew in strength and Central Europe was defenseless. At the Battle of Mohács, the forces of the Ottoman Empire annihilated the Hungarian army and Louis II of Hungary drowned in the Csele Creek while trying to escape. The leader of the Hungarian army, Pál Tomori, also died in the battle. This is considered to be one of the final battles of Medieval times.

Timeline

Mississippian cultureIslamic empires in IndiaJoseon DynastyGoryeoMuromachi periodKenmu restorationKamakura periodMing DynastyYuan DynastyGolden HordeChagatai KhanateMamluk SultanateKingdom of GeorgiaOttoman EmpireSerbian EmpireSecond Bulgarian EmpireRenaissanceItalian RenaissanceGerman RenaissanceHoly Roman EmpireRenaissanceGrand Duchy of MoscowGrand Duchy of LithuaniaRenaissanceReconquistaKingdom of EnglandKalmar UnionChristianization of ScandinaviaEarly modernModernCrisis of the Late Middle Ages

Dates are approximate, consult particular articles for details    Middle Ages Themes   Other themes

14th century

Lithuania defeats Golden Horde. Principality of Kiev becomes part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

15th century

Gallery

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b For references, see below.

References

  1. ^ Wallace K. Ferguson, Europe in transition, 1300–1520 (1962) online.
  2. .
  3. ^ Norman Cantor, The Civilization of the Middle Ages (1994) p. 480.
  4. ^ Cantor, p. 594.
  5. ^ Leonardo Bruni, James Hankins, History of the Florentine people, Volume 1, Books 1–4, (2001), p. xvii.
  6. ^ Brady et al., p. xiv; Cantor, p. 529.
  7. .
  8. .
  9. ^ "Les périodes de l'histoire du capitalisme", Académie Royale de Belgique. Bulletin de la Classe des Lettres, 1914.
  10. .
  11. .
  12. ^ Norman Cantor, The Civilization of the Middle Ages (1994) p. 530.
  13. .
  14. ^ a b c Brady et al., p. xvii.
  15. ^ Allmand (1998), p. 3; Holmes, p. 294; Koenigsberger, pp. 299–300.
  16. ^ Brady et al., p. xvii; Jones, p. 21.
  17. ^ Allmand (1998), p. 29; Cantor, p. 514; Koenigsberger, pp. 300–303.
  18. ^ Brady et al., p. xvii; Holmes, p. 276; Ozment, p. 4.
  19. ^ Hollister, p. 366; Jones, p. 722.
  20. ^ Allmand (1998), p. 703
  21. ^ Allmand (1998), p. 673.
  22. ^ Allmand (1998), p. 193.
  23. ^ Alan Cutler (1997-08-13). "The Little Ice Age: When global cooling gripped the world". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2019-10-22. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
  24. ^ Jones, pp. 348–349.
  25. ^ Jones, pp. 350–351; Koenigsberger, p. 232; McKisack, p. 40.
  26. ^ Jones, p. 351.
  27. ^ Allmand (1998), p. 458; Koenigsberger, p. 309.
  28. ^ Allmand (1998), p. 458; Nicholas, pp. 32–33.
  29. ^ Hollister, p. 353; Jones, pp. 488–492.
  30. ^ McKisack, pp. 228–229.
  31. ^ Hollister, p. 355; Holmes, pp. 288–289; Koenigsberger, p. 304.
  32. ^ Duby, pp. 288–293; Holmes, p. 300.
  33. ^ Allmand (1998), pp. 450–455; Jones, pp. 528–529.
  34. ^ Allmand (1998), p. 455; Hollister, p. 355; Koenigsberger, p. 304.
  35. ^ Allmand (1998), p. 455; Hollister, p. 363; Koenigsberger, pp. 306–307.
  36. ^ Holmes, pp. 311–312; Wandycz, p. 40
  37. ^ Hollister, p. 362; Holmes, p. 280.
  38. ^ Cantor, p. 507; Hollister, p. 362.
  39. ^ Allmand (1998), pp. 152–153; Cantor, p. 508; Koenigsberger, p. 345.
  40. ^ Wandycz, p. 38.
  41. ^ Wandycz, p. 40.
  42. ^ Jones, p. 737.
  43. ^ Koenigsberger, p. 318; Wandycz, p. 41.
  44. ^ Jones, p. 7.
  45. .
  46. ^ Martin, pp. 100–101.
  47. ^ Koenigsberger, p. 322; Jones, p. 793; Martin, pp. 236–237.
  48. ^ Martin, p. 239.
  49. ^ Allmand (1998), p. 754; Koenigsberger, p. 323.
  50. ^ Allmand, p. 769; Hollister, p. 368.
  51. ^ Hollister, p. 49.
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