Lavandula
Lavender | |
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Lavender flowers with bracts | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Asterids |
Order: | Lamiales |
Family: | Lamiaceae |
Subfamily: | Nepetoideae |
Tribe: | Ocimeae |
Genus: | Lavandula L. |
Type species | |
Lavandula spica
| |
Synonyms[1] | |
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Lavandula (common name lavender) is a
, with an affinity for maritime breezes.Lavender is found on the Iberian Peninsula and around the entirety of the Mediterranean coastline (including the Adriatic coast, the Balkans, the Levant, and coastal North Africa), in parts of Eastern and Southern Africa and the Middle East, as well as in South Asia and on the Indian subcontinent.[2]
Many members of the genus are cultivated extensively in
Description
Plant and leaves
The genus includes annual or short-lived
Leaf shape is diverse across the genus. They are
Flowers
Flowers are contained in
Nomenclature and taxonomy
Lavandula stoechas, L. pedunculata, and L. dentata were known in Roman times.[6] From the Middle Ages onwards, the European species were considered two separate groups or genera, Stoechas (L. stoechas, L. pedunculata, L. dentata) and Lavandula (L. spica and L. latifolia), until Linnaeus combined them. He recognised only five species in Species Plantarum (1753), L. multifida and L. dentata (Spain) and L. stoechas and L. spica from Southern Europe. L. pedunculata was included within L. stoechas.
By 1790, L. pinnata and L. carnosa were recognised. The latter was subsequently transferred to Anisochilus. By 1826, Frédéric Charles Jean Gingins de la Sarraz listed 12 species in three sections, and by 1848 eighteen species were known.[6]
One of the first modern major classifications was that of Dorothy Chaytor in 1937 at Kew. The six sections she proposed for 28 species still left many intermediates that could not easily be assigned. Her sections included
Lavandula has three subgenera:[8][9][10]
- Subgenus Lavandula is mainly of woody shrubs with entire leaves. It contains the principal species grown as ornamental plants and for oils. They are found across the Mediterranean region to northeast Africa and western Arabia.
- Subgenus Fabricia consists of shrubs and herbs, and it has a wide distribution from the Atlantic to India. It contains some ornamental plants.
- Subgenus Sabaudia constitutes two species in the southwest Arabian peninsula and Eritrea, which are rather distinct from the other species, and are sometimes placed in their own genus Sabaudia.
In addition, there are numerous hybrids and cultivars in commercial and horticultural usage.[4]
The first major
Thus the current classification includes 39 species distributed across 8 sections (the original 6 of Chaytor and the two new sections of Upson and
Etymology
The English word lavender came into use in the 13th century, and is generally thought to derive from Old French lavandre, ultimately from Latin lavare from lavo (to wash),[11] referring to the use of blue infusions of the plants.[12] The botanic name Lavandula as used by Linnaeus is considered to be derived from this and other European vernacular names for the plants.[13]
The names widely used for some of the species, "English lavender", "French lavender" and "Spanish lavender" are all imprecisely applied. "English lavender" is commonly used for L. angustifolia, though some references say the proper term is "Old English lavender".[citation needed] The name "French lavender" may refer to either L. stoechas or to L. dentata. "Spanish lavender" may refer to L. stoechas, L. lanata, or L. dentata.[citation needed]
Cultivation
The most common form in cultivation is the common or English lavender Lavandula angustifolia (formerly named L. officinalis). A wide range of cultivars can be found. Other commonly grown ornamental species are L. stoechas, L. dentata, and L. multifida (Egyptian lavender).
Because the cultivated forms are planted in gardens worldwide, they are occasionally found growing wild as garden escapes, well beyond their natural range. Such spontaneous growth is usually harmless, but in some cases, Lavandula species have become invasive. For example, in Australia, L. stoechas has become a cause for concern; it occurs widely throughout the continent and has been declared a noxious weed in Victoria since 1920.[14] It is regarded as a weed in parts of Spain.[15]
Lavenders flourish best in dry, well-drained, sandy or gravelly soils in full sun.[16] English lavender has a long germination process (14–28 days) and matures within 100–110 days.[citation needed] All types need little or no fertilizer and good air circulation. In areas of high humidity, root rot due to fungus infection can be a problem. Organic mulches can trap moisture around the plants' bases, encouraging root rot. Gravelly materials such as crushed rocks give better results.[17] It grows best in soils with a pH between 6 and 8.[18] Most lavender is hand-harvested, and harvest times vary depending on intended use.[18]
Lavender oil
Commercially, the plant is grown mainly for the production of lavender essential oil. English lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) yields an oil with sweet overtones and can be used in balms, salves, perfumes, cosmetics, and topical applications.[19] Lavandula × intermedia, also known as lavandin or Dutch lavender, hybrids of L. angustifolia and L. latifolia.[20] are widely cultivated for commercial use since their flowers tend to be bigger than those of English lavender and the plants tend to be easier to harvest.[21] They yield a similar essential oil, but with higher levels of terpenes including camphor, which add a sharper overtone to the fragrance, regarded by some as of lower quality than that of English lavender.
The US Food and Drug Administration considers lavender as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for human consumption.[22] The essential oil was used in hospitals during World War I.[16]
Phytochemicals
Some 100 individual
Culinary use
Culinary lavender is usually English lavender, the most commonly used species in cooking (L. angustifolia 'Munstead'). As an aromatic, it has a sweet fragrance with lemon or citrus notes.[24] It is used as a spice or condiment in pastas, salads and dressings, and desserts.[25][26] Their buds and greens are used in teas, and their buds, processed by bees, are the essential ingredient of a monofloral honey.[27]
Use of buds
For most cooking applications the dried buds, which are also referred to as flowers, are used. Lavender greens have a more subtle flavor when compared to rosemary.[28]
The potency of the lavender flowers increases with drying which necessitates more sparing use to avoid a heavy, soapy aftertaste. Chefs note to reduce by two-thirds the dry amount in recipes that call for fresh lavender buds.
Lavender buds can amplify both sweet and savory flavors in dishes and are sometimes paired with sheep's milk and goat's milk cheeses. Lavender flowers are occasionally blended with black, green, or herbal teas. Lavender flavors baked goods and desserts, pairing especially well with chocolate. In the United States, both lavender syrup and dried lavender buds are used to make lavender scones and marshmallows.[30][31]
Lavender buds are put into sugar for two weeks to allow the essential oils and fragrance to transfer; then the sugar itself is used in baking. Lavender can be used in breads where recipes call for rosemary. Lavender can be used decoratively in dishes or spirits, or as a decorative and aromatic in a glass of champagne. Lavender is used in savory dishes, giving stews and reduced sauces aromatic flair. It is also used to scent flans, custards, and sorbets.[24]
In honey
The flowers yield abundant
Other uses
Flower spikes are used for dried flower arrangements. The fragrant, pale purple flowers and flower buds are used in
.In history and culture
The ancient Greeks called the lavender herb νάρδος: nárdos, Latinized as nardus, after the Syrian city of Naarda (possibly the modern town of Duhok, Iraq). It was also commonly called nard.[33] The species originally grown was L. stoechas.[4]
During
Since the late 19th century, lavenders have been associated with the
Culinary history
Spanish nard (
Lavender was introduced into England in the 1600s. It is said that
Lavender was not used in traditional southern French cooking at the turn of the 20th century. It does not appear at all in the best-known compendium of Provençal cooking, J.-B. Reboul's Cuisinière Provençale.[37] French lambs have been allowed to graze on lavender as it is alleged to make their meat more tender and fragrant.[24] In the 1970s, a blend of herbs called herbes de Provence was invented by spice wholesalers. Culinary lavender is added to the mixture in the North American version.[38]
In the 21st century, lavender is used in many world regions to flavor tea, vinegar, jellies, baked goods, and beverages.[39]
Herbalism
The German scientific committee on
Health precautions
The U.S.
A 2007 study examined the relationship between various fragrances and photosensitivity, stating that lavender is known "to elicit cutaneous photo-toxic reactions", but does not induce photohaemolysis.[44]
Adverse effects
Some people experience
Taxonomic table
This is based on the classification of Upson and Andrews, 2004.
I. Subgenus Lavendula Upson & S.Andrews
II. Subgenus Fabricia (Adams.) Upson & S.Andrews
III. Subgenus Sabaudia (Buscal. & Muschl.) Upson & S.Andrews
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Gallery
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Lavender flower
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Flower of cultivated lavender; Lavandula stoechas
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Lavender garden, India
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Lavandula fields near Drama
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The flower of Lavandula angustifolia.
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Lavender growing at Kula Lavender Farm located in Maui, Hawaii
References
- ^ "Lavandula L., Sp. Pl.: 572 (1753)". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2022. Retrieved 2 November 2022.
- ^ Forney, Julie Martens (n.d.). "Outdoor flowering plants – mona lavender". HGTV. Retrieved 19 October 2018.
- ^ "Plectranthus Mona lavender". Plant Finder. Missouri Botanical Garden. Retrieved 19 October 2018.
- ^ ISBN 9780881926422. Retrieved 30 March 2012.
- ^ Bailey, L. H. (1924). Manual of Cultivated Plants. New York: MacMillan Publishing Company.
- ^ ISBN 9780203216521.
- ^ Chaytor D A. A taxonomic study of the genus Lavandula. 1937
- PMID 37240177.
- S2CID 84974038– via Ebsco.
- S2CID 224898995– via SpringerLink.
- ^ a b Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles (1879). "lavo". A Latin Dictionary. Perseus Digital Library.
- ^ "Lavender". Online Etymology Dictionary. 2022. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
- ^ "lavender | Etymology of lavender by etymonline". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ Carr, G.W; Yugovic, J.V; Robinson, K.E. (1992). Environmental Weed Invasions in Victoria – conservation and management implications. Victoria, Australia: Department of Conservation and Environment and Ecological Horticulture.
- ISBN 0-642-21409-3. Archived from the original(PDF) on 10 October 2007.
- ^ ISBN 0-486-22799-5.
- ^ Brenzel, Kathleen Norris. The Sunset Western Garden Book (7th ed.).
- ^ a b Ernst, Matt (2017). "Lavender" (PDF). University of Kentucky Center for Crop Diversification.
- ^ a b c d "Lavender". Drugs.com. 1 November 2018. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
- ISBN 0-333-59149-6),
- . Retrieved on 23 April 2009.
- ^ PMID 30000925. Retrieved 15 August 2019.
- S2CID 21779233.
- ^ a b c d e Lavender WhatsCookingAmerica.net
- ^ Pasta With Shredded Vegetables and Lavender Recipe, New York Times, 27 August 2008
- ^ M. G. Kains (1912). American Agriculturist (ed.). Culinary Herbs: Their Cultivation Harvesting Curing and Uses (English). Orange Judd Company.
- ^ a b "Cooking with Lavender – Purple Haze Lavender (Sequim, WA)". Purple Haze Lavender. Archived from the original on 17 April 2010. Retrieved 25 August 2008.
- ^ "Cooking with Lavender?". Chowhound. 24 June 2009. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
- ^ "Cooking With Lavender", Bon Appetit, 27 March 2015
- ^ Stradley, Linda (22 April 2015). "Lavender Scones, Whats Cooking America". What's Cooking America. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
- ^ Maclain, Ben (2 May 2015). "Lavender Marshmallows – Havoc In The Kitchen". Havoc in the Kitchen. Archived from the original on 30 October 2016. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
- ^ McCray, Carole. "Lavender – the loveliest of herbs". The Register-Guard. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
- ^ The origin of most of these quotes comes from Dr. William Thomas Fernie, in his book "Herbal Simples" (Bristol Pub., second edition, 1897), page 298:
'By the Greeks the name Nardus is given to Lavender, from Naarda, a city of Syria near the Euphrates, and many persons call the plant "Nard." St. Mark mentions this as Spikenard, a thing of great value. In Pliny's time, blossoms of the Nardus sold for a hundred Roman denarii (or L.3 2s. 6d.) the pound. This Lavender or Nardus was called Asarum by the Romans, because it was not used in garlands or chaplets. It was formerly believed that the asp, a dangerous kind of viper, made Lavender its habitual place of abode, so that the plant had to be approached with great caution.'
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary (second ed.). 1989.
Note however that Upson and Andrews refer to research on bathing in the Roman Empire, and state that there is no mention of the use of lavender in works on this subject.
- ^ "How Lavender Became a Symbol of LGBTQ Resistance". History News Network. 4 June 2020. Retrieved 29 January 2024.
- ^ "The Forme of Cury". Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 29 October 2020.
PUR FAIT YPOCRAS. XX.IX. XI. Treys Unces de canett. & iii unces de gyngeuer, spykenard de Spayn le pays dun denerer, garyngale, clowes, gylofre, poeurer long, noiez mugadez, maziozame cardemonij de chescun i quart' douce grayne & de paradys stour de queynel de chescun dim unce de toutes, soit fait powdour &c.
- ^ J.-B. Reboul; Cuisinière Provençale (1910)
- S2CID 144212782.
- ISBN 9781461443100, retrieved 5 September 2021
- ^ "Expanded Commission E monograph: Lavender flower". cms.herbalgram.org. Integrative Medicine Communications, Germany; from the American Botanical Council. 2000. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
- ^ a b c d "Lavender". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health. 1 August 2020. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
- ^ "Oils 'make male breasts develop'". British Broadcasting Corporation. February 2007. Retrieved 17 March 2018.
- ^ "More evidence essential oils 'make male breasts develop'". British Broadcasting Corporation. March 2018. Retrieved 17 March 2018.
- PMID 17598033.
Also, oils of lemon, lavender, lime, sandalwood, and cedar are known to elicit cutaneous phototoxic reactions, but lavender, sandalwood, and cedar oil did not induce photohaemolysis in our assay...Lavender oil and sandalwood oil did not induce photohaemolysis in our test system. However, a few reports on photosensitivity reactions due to these substances have been published, e.g. one patient with persistent light reaction and a positive photo-patch test to sandalwood oil
Further reading
- Upson T, Andrews S. The Genus Lavandula. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2004
- United States Department of Agriculture GRIN: Lavandula (archived 12 May 2013)
External links
- Lavandula at Curlie