Niger

Coordinates: 16°N 8°E / 16°N 8°E / 16; 8
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Republic of the Niger
République du Niger (French)
Motto: 
  • "Fraternité, Travail, Progrès" (
    Ethnic groups
    (2021)[2]
Religion
(2012)[3]
Prime Minister
Ali Lamine Zeine
LegislatureNational Council for the Safeguard of the Homeland
Independence 
from France
• Republic proclaimed
18 December 1958
• Declared
3 August 1960
26 July 2023
+227
ISO 3166 codeNE
Internet TLD.ne

Niger or the Niger,[a] officially the Republic of the Niger,[b] is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is a unitary state bordered by Libya to the northeast, Chad to the east, Nigeria to the south, Benin and Burkina Faso to the southwest, Mali to the west, and Algeria to the northwest. It covers a land area of almost 1,270,000 km2 (490,000 sq mi), making it the largest landlocked country in West Africa and the second largest landlocked nation in Africa behind Chad. Over 80% of its land area lies in the Sahara. Its predominantly Muslim population of about 25 million[14][15] lives mostly in clusters in the south and west of the country. The capital Niamey is located in Niger's southwest corner.

Following the spread of Islam to the region, Niger was on the fringes of some states, including the Kanem–Bornu Empire and the Mali Empire before more significant parts of its territory became included in states such as the Sultanate of Agadez and the Songhai Empire. It was colonized by France during the Scramble for Africa as part of French West Africa, becoming a distinct colony in 1922. Since obtaining independence in 1960, Niger has experienced five coups d'état and four periods of military rule. Niger's seventh and most recent constitution was enacted in 2010, establishing a multiparty, unitary semi-presidential system. Following the most recent coup in 2023, the country is once again under a military junta.

Its society reflects a diversity drawn from the independent histories of some

ethnic groups and regions and their period living in a single state. The Hausa are the country's largest ethnic group, making up more than half the population. French is the country's official language, and ten indigenous languages have the status of national language
.

According to the UN's Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) report of 2023, Niger is one of the poorest countries in the world.

fertility rates due to birth control not being used and the resulting rapid population growth.[17]

Etymology

The name comes from the Niger River which flows through the west of the country. The origin of the river's name is uncertain. Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy wrote descriptions of the wadi Gir (in neighbouring modern Algeria) and the Ni-Gir ("Lower Gir") to the south, possibly referring to the Niger River.[18] The modern spelling Niger was first recorded by

Tuareg phrase (e)gărăw-n-gărăwăn meaning "river of rivers".[20] There is broad consensus among linguists that it does not derive from the Latin niger ("black") as was first erroneously believed.[18] The standard pronunciation in English is /nˈʒɛər/, while in some Anglophone media /ˈnər/
is also used.

History

Prehistory

Rock engraving showing herds of giraffe, ibex, and other animals in the southern Sahara near Tiguidit, Niger

Stone tools, some dating as far back as 280,000 BC, have been found in Adrar Bous, Bilma and Djado in the northern Agadez Region.[21] Some of these finds have been linked with the Aterian and Mousterian tool cultures of the Middle Paleolithic period, which flourished in northern Africa circa 90,000 BC–20,000 BC.[22][21] It is thought that these humans lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle.[21] During the prehistoric African humid period, the climate of the Sahara was wetter and more fertile, a phenomenon archaeologists refer to as the "Green Sahara", which provided "favourable" conditions for hunting and later agriculture and livestock herding.[23][24]

The

tumuli.[21] As the climate changed in the period 4000–2800 BC the Sahara gradually began drying out, forcing a change in settlement patterns to the south and east.[25] Agriculture spread, including the planting of millet and sorghum, and pottery production.[21] Iron and copper items appear in this era, with finds including those at Azawagh, Takedda, Marendet and the Termit Massif.[26][27][28] The Kiffian (circa 8000–6000 BC) and later Tenerian (circa 5000–2500 BC) cultures, centred on Adrar Bous and Gobero where skeletons have been uncovered, flourished during this period.[29][30][31][32][33]

Societies continued to grow with regional differentiation in agricultural and funerary practices. A culture of this period is the Bura culture (circa 200–1300 AD) named for the Bura archaeological site where a burial replete with iron and ceramic statuettes were discovered.[34] The Neolithic era saw the flourishing of Saharan rock art, including in the Aïr Mountains, Termit Massif, Djado Plateau, Iwelene, Arakao, Tamakon, Tzerzait, Iferouane, Mammanet and Dabous; the art spans the period from 10,000 BC to 100 AD and depicts a range of subjects, from the varied fauna of the landscape to depictions of spear-carrying figures dubbed 'Libyan warriors'.[35][36][37]

Empires and kingdoms in pre-colonial Niger

By at least the 5th century BC the territory of what is now Niger had become an area of trans-Saharan trade. Led by

Tuareg tribes from the north, camels were used as a means of transportation through what is later a desert.[38][39] This mobility which would continue in waves for centuries was accompanied with further migration to the south and intermixing between sub-Saharan African and North African populations, and the spread of Islam.[40] It was aided by the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb in the 7th century, the result of three Arab invasions, which resulted in population movements to the south.[25]
Empires and kingdoms existed in the Sahel during this era. The following adopts a roughly chronological account of some empires.

Mali Empire (1200s–1400s)

The Mali Empire was a

Tuareg and Songhai peoples.[43] A rump Mali kingdom continued to exist until the 1600s.[citation needed
]

Songhai Empire (1000s–1591)

Map of the Songhai Empire, overlaid over modern boundaries

The

Saadi dynasty of Morocco and was decisively defeated at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591; it then collapsed into a number of smaller kingdoms.[45]

Sultanate of Aïr (1400s–1906)

The Grand Mosque of Agadez

In c. 1449 in the north of what is now Niger, the

Sultanate of Aïr was founded by Sultan Ilisawan, based in Agadez.[21] Formerly a trading post inhabited by a mixture of Hausa and Tuaregs, it grew as a strategic position on the Trans-Saharan trade routes. In 1515, Aïr was conquered by Songhai, remaining a part of that empire until its collapse in 1591.[21][40] In the following centuries, it "seems that the sultanate entered a decline" marked by internecine wars and clan conflicts.[40] When Europeans began exploring the region in the 19th century, most of Agadez lay in ruins and was taken over by the French (see below).[21][40]

Kanem–Bornu Empire (700s–1700s)

To the east, the

Niger-Nigeria border.[51][48][52] Bornu "prospered" during the rule of Mai Idris Alooma (r. circa 1575–1610) and re-conquered most of the "traditional lands" of Kanem, hence the designation 'Kanem–Bornu' for the empire. By the 17th century and into the 18th the Bornu kingdom had entered a "period of decline", shrinking back to its Lake Chad heartland.[45][48]

Circa 1730–40 a group of

Borno Empire until the reign of Sultan Tanimoune Dan Souleymane in the 19th century, who declared independence and initiated a phase of expansion.[21] The sultanate managed to resist the advance of the Sokoto Caliphate (see below), and was later captured by the French in 1899.[21]

The Hausa states and other smaller kingdoms (1400s–1800s)

Overlooking the town of Zinder and the Sultan's Palace from the French fort (1906). The arrival of the French spelled an end for precolonial states like the Sultanate of Damagaram which carried on only as ceremonial "chiefs" appointed by the colonial government.

Between the Niger River and Lake Chad lay

Gwari, Yauri, Ilorin and Kwararafa.[54] A smaller state not fitting into this scheme was Konni, centred on Birni-N'Konni.[40]

Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913

The

Sultanate of Tessaoua). The Caliphate managed to survive until, "fatally weakened" by the invasions of Chad-based warlord Rabih az-Zubayr, it finally fell to the British in 1903, with its lands later being partitioned between Britain and France.[56]

Other smaller kingdoms of the period include the Dosso Kingdom, a Zarma polity founded in 1750, which resisted the rule of Hausa and Sokoto states.[40]

Colonial (1900–1958)

French West Africa in 1949

In the 19th century, some European explorers travelled in the area that would become known as Niger, such as Mungo Park (in 1805–1806), the Oudney-Denham-Clapperton expedition (1822–25), Heinrich Barth (1850–55 with James Richardson and Adolf Overweg), Friedrich Gerhard Rohlfs (1865–1867), Gustav Nachtigal (1869–1874) and Parfait-Louis Monteil (1890–1892).[21]

Some European countries already possessed coastal colonies in Africa, and in the latter half of the century they began to turn their eyes towards the interior of the continent. This process, known as the 'Scramble for Africa', culminated in the 1885 Berlin conference in which the colonial powers outlined the division of Africa into spheres of influence. As a result of this, France gained control of the upper valley of the Niger River (roughly equivalent to the present territory of Mali and Niger).[57] France then set about making a reality of their rule on the ground. In 1897, the French officer Marius Gabriel Cazemajou was sent to Niger. He reached the Sultanate of Damagaram in 1898, and stayed in Zinder at the court of Sultan Amadou Kouran Daga. He was later killed, as Daga feared he would ally with the Chad-based warlord Rabih az-Zubayr.[40] In 1899–1900, France coordinated three expeditions—the Gentil Mission from French Congo, the Foureau-Lamy Mission from Algeria and the Voulet–Chanoine Mission from Timbuktu—with the aim of linking France's African possessions.[57] The three eventually met at Kousséri (in the far north of Cameroon) and defeated Rabih az-Zubayr's forces at the Battle of Kousséri. The Voulet-Chanoine Mission was "marred by atrocities", and "became notorious" for pillaging, looting, raping and killing local civilians on its passage throughout southern Niger.[40][21] On 8 May 1899, in retaliation for the resistance of queen Sarraounia, captain Voulet and his men murdered all the inhabitants of the village of Birni-N'Konni in what is regarded as "one of the worst massacres in French colonial history".[40] The "brutal" methods of Voulet and Chanoine caused a "scandal" and Paris was forced to intervene; when Lieutenant-Colonel Jean-François Klobb caught up with the mission near Tessaoua to relieve them of command he was killed. Lt. Paul Joalland, Klobb's former officer, and Lt. Octave Meynier eventually took over the mission following a mutiny in which Voulet and Chanoine were killed.[21] The Military Territory of Niger was subsequently created within the

transferred to Chad in 1931.[59]

The French generally adopted a form of indirect rule, allowing existing native structures to continue to exist within the colonial framework of governance providing that they acknowledged French supremacy.

groundnut cultivation.[21] Measures to improve food security following a series of devastating famines in 1913, 1920, and 1931 were introduced.[21][40]

During the

president
of the country.

Post-colonial (1960–)

Diori years (1960–1974)

greet crowds on a state visit to Niamey, 1969. Diori's single party rule was characterised by "good" relations with the West and a preoccupation with foreign affairs.

For its first 14 years as an independent state, Niger was run by a single-party civilian regime under the presidency of Hamani Diori.

border dispute. Niger remained a one-party state throughout this period, with Diori surviving a planned coup in 1963 and an assassination attempt in 1965; most of this activity was masterminded by Djibo Bakary's MSA-Sawaba group which had launched an abortive rebellion in 1964.[40][65] In the 1970s, a combination of economic difficulties, droughts and accusations of rampant corruption and mismanagement of food supplies resulted in a coup d'état
that overthrew the Diori regime.

First military regime (1974–1991)

The coup had been masterminded by Col. Seyni Kountché and a military group under the name of the Conseil Militaire Supreme, with Kountché going on to rule the country until his death in 1987.[40] The first action of the military government was to address the food crisis.[66] Whilst political prisoners of the Diori regime were released after the coup, political and individual freedoms in general deteriorated during this period. There were attempted coups (in 1975, 1976 and 1984) which were thwarted, their instigators being punished.[40]

President Seyni Kountché during the state visit of West German President Karl Carstens to Niger in 1983

Kountché sought to create a 'development society', funded mostly by the uranium mines in

Parastatal companies were created, infrastructure (building and new roads, schools, health centres) constructed, and there was corruption in government agencies, which Kountché did not hesitate to punish.[67] In the 1980s, Kountché began cautiously loosening the grip of the military, with some relaxation of state censorship and attempts made to 'civilianise' the regime.[40] The economic boom ended following the collapse in uranium prices, and IMF-led austerity and privatisation measures provoked opposition by some Nigeriens.[40] In 1985, a Tuareg revolt in Tchintabaraden was suppressed.[40] Kountché died in November 1987 from a brain tumour, and was succeeded by his chief of staff, Col. Ali Saibou who was confirmed as Chief of the Supreme Military Council four days later.[40]

Saibou curtailed the most repressive aspects of the Kountché era (such as the secret police and media censorship), and set about introducing a process of political reform under the overall direction of a single party (the Mouvement National pour la Société du Développement, or MNSD).[40] A Second Republic was declared and a new constitution was drawn up, which was adopted following a referendum in 1989.[40] General Saibou became the first president of the Second Republic after winning the presidential election on 10 December 1989.[68]

President Saibou's efforts to control political reforms failed in the face of trade union and student demands to institute a

multi-party democratic system. On 9 February 1990, a violently repressed student march in Niamey led to the death of three students, which led to increased national and international pressure for further democratic reform.[40] The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990.[40] Meanwhile, trouble re-emerged in Agadez Region when a group of armed Tuaregs attacked the town of Tchintabaraden (seen by some as the start of the first Tuareg Rebellion), prompting a military crackdown which led to deaths (the precise numbers are disputed, with estimates ranging from 70 to up to 1,000).[40]

Ali Saibou, President 1987–93, helped oversee the transition from military to civilian rule

National Conference and Third Republic (1991–1996)

The National Sovereign Conference of 1991 brought about multi-party democracy. From 29 July to 3 November, a national conference gathered together all elements of society to make recommendations for the future direction of the country. The conference was presided over by Prof.

transitional government; this was then installed in November 1991 to manage the affairs of state until the institutions of the Third Republic were put into place in April 1993. After the National Sovereign Conference, the transitional government drafted a constitution that eliminated the previous single-party system of the 1989 Constitution and guaranteed more freedoms. The new constitution was adopted by a referendum on 26 December 1992.[69] Following this, presidential elections were held and Mahamane Ousmane became the first president of the Third Republic on 27 March 1993.[40][68] Ousmane's presidency saw four government changes and legislative elections in 1995, and an economic slump.[40]

The violence in Agadez Region continued during this period, prompting the Nigerien government to sign a truce with Tuareg rebels in 1992 which was ineffective owing to internal dissension within the Tuareg ranks.

Toubou peoples claiming that, like the Tuareg, the Nigerien government had neglected their region, broke out in the east of the country.[40] In April 1995 a peace deal with a Tuareg rebel group was signed, with the government agreeing to absorb some former rebels into the military and, with French assistance, help others return to a productive civilian life.[70]

Second and third military regimes (1996–1999)

The governmental paralysis prompted the military to intervene; on 27 January 1996, Col. Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara led a coup that deposed President Ousmane and ended the Third Republic.[71][72] Maïnassara headed a Conseil de Salut National (National Salvation Council) composed of military officials which carried out a six-month transition period, during which a constitution was drafted and adopted on 12 May 1996.[40]

Presidential campaigns were organised in the months that followed. Maïnassara entered the campaign as an independent candidate and won the

Niamey Airport on 9 April 1999.[73][74]

Maj.

semi-presidential system. This was adopted on 9 August 1999 and was followed by presidential and legislative elections in October and November of the same year.[75] The elections were generally found to be free and fair by international observers. Wanké then withdrew from governmental affairs.[40]

Fifth Republic (1999–2009)

A Tuareg rebel fighter in northern Niger during the Second Tuareg Rebellion, 2008

After winning the election in November 1999, President

Nguigmi, and the government was able to restore order within days. On 24 July 2004, municipal elections were held to elect local representatives, previously appointed by the government. These elections were followed by presidential elections, in which Mamadou was re-elected for a second term, thus becoming the first president of the republic to win consecutive elections without being deposed by military coups.[40][78] The legislative and executive configuration remained somewhat similar to that of the first term of the president: Hama Amadou was reappointed as prime minister and Mahamane Ousmane
, the head of the CDS party, was re-elected as the president of the National Assembly (parliament) by his peers.

By 2007, the relationship between President Tandja Mamadou and his prime minister had "deteriorated", leading to the replacement of the latter in June 2007 by Seyni Oumarou following a successful vote of no confidence at the Assembly.[40] President Tandja Mamadou sought to extend his presidency by modifying the constitution which limited presidential terms. Proponents of the extended presidency, who rallied behind the 'Tazartche' (Hausa for 'overstay') movement, were countered by opponents ('anti-Tazartche') composed of opposition party militants and civil society activists.[40]

The north saw the outbreak of a

Second Tuareg Rebellion in 2007 led by the Mouvement des Nigériens pour la justice (MNJ). With a number of kidnappings the rebellion had "largely fizzled out inconclusively" by 2009.[40] The "poor" security situation in the region is thought to have allowed elements of Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) to gain a foothold in the country.[40]

Fourth military regime (2009–2010)

In 2009, President Tandja Mamadou decided to organize a constitutional referendum seeking to extend his presidency, which was opposed by other political parties, and went against the decision of the Constitutional Court which had ruled that the referendum would be unconstitutional. Mamadou then modified and adopted a new constitution by referendum, which was declared illegal by the Constitutional Court, prompting Mamadou to dissolve the Court and assume emergency powers.[79][80] The opposition boycotted the referendum and the constitution was adopted with 92.5% of voters and a 68% turnout, according to official results. The adoption of the constitution created a Sixth Republic, with a presidential system, the suspension of the 1999 Constitution, and a three-year interim government with Tandja Mamadou as president. The events generated political and social unrest.[40]

In a coup d'état in February 2010, a military junta led by Salou Djibo was established in response to Tandja's attempted extension of his political term.[81] The Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy, headed by Djibo, carried out a one-year transition plan, drafted a constitution and held elections in 2011.

Seventh Republic (2010–2023)

Semi-arid Niger is threatened by further desertification.

Following the adoption of a constitution in 2010 and

people-smuggling gangs).[84] French and American forces assisted Niger in countering these threats.[85]

On 27 December 2020, Nigeriens went to the polls after Issoufou announced he would step down, paving the way to a peaceful transition of power.[86] No candidate won an absolute majority in the vote: Mohamed Bazoum came closest with 39.33%. Per the constitution, a run-off election was held on 20 February 2021, with Bazoum taking 55.75% of the vote and opposition candidate (and former president) Mahamane Ousmane taking 44.25%, according to the electoral commission.[87]

On 31 March 2021, Niger's security forces thwarted an

President of Niger.[89]

Late on 26 July 2023, a

2023 crisis

The

2023 Nigerien crisis has resulted in threats of a military intervention from ECOWAS.[93]

Geography

A map of Niger
Satellite image of Niger

Niger is a

landlocked nation in West Africa located along the border between the Sahara and Sub-Saharan regions. It borders Nigeria and Benin to the south, Burkina Faso and Mali to the west, Algeria and Libya to the north and Chad
to the east.

Niger lies between latitudes 11° and 24°N, and longitudes and 16°E. Its area is 1,267,000 square kilometres (489,191 sq mi) of which 300 square kilometres (116 sq mi) is water. This makes it less than twice the size of France, and the world's 21st largest country.[94]

Niger borders seven countries and has a total perimeter of 5,697 kilometres (3,540 mi). The longest border is with Nigeria to the south (1,497 km or 930 mi). This is followed by Chad to the east, at 1,175 km (730 mi), Algeria to the north-northwest (956 km or 594 mi), and Mali at 821 km (510 mi). Niger has borders in its further southwest with Burkina Faso at 628 km (390 mi) and Benin at 266 km (165 mi) and to the north-northeast Libya at 354 km (220 mi).

The lowest point in Niger is the Niger River, with an elevation of 200 metres (656 ft). The highest point is Mont Idoukal-n-Taghès in the Aïr Mountains at 2,022 m (6,634 ft).

Niger's terrain is predominantly desert plains and

sand dunes
, with flat to rolling savanna in the south and hills in the north.

Climate

Map of Köppen climate classification

The hotter and drier climate within desert areas causes more frequent fires in some regions.[95] In the south, there is a tropical climate on the edges of the Niger River basin.

Biodiversity

An elephant in the W National Park

The territory of Niger contains five terrestrial ecoregions:

The north is covered by deserts and semi-deserts. The typical mammal fauna consists of

scimitar-horned oryx, gazelles, and in the mountains, Barbary sheep. The Aïr and Ténéré National Nature Reserve
was founded in the northern parts to protect these species.

The southern parts are naturally dominated savannahs. The

West African lion and one of the last populations of the Northwest African cheetah
.

Other wildlife includes elephants, buffaloes,

is found in the further north where it has its last relict population.

Environmental issues include destructive farming practices as a result of population pressure, illegal hunting, bush fires in some areas and human encroachment upon the flood plains of the Niger River for paddy cultivation. Dams constructed on the Niger River in the neighboring countries of Mali and Guinea and within Niger are cited as a reason for a reduction of water flow in the Niger River—which has a direct effect upon the environment. A "lack of adequate staff" to guard wildlife in the parks and reserves is another factor cited for loss of wildlife.[97]

resilience to climate extremes.[98]

Governance and politics

President Mahamadou Issoufou and Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe in October 2019

Niger's new constitution was approved on 31 October 2010. It restored the semi-presidential system of government of the 1999 constitution (Fifth Republic) in which the president of the republic, elected by

executive power
.

On 26 May 2009, President Tandja dissolved parliament after the country's constitutional court ruled against plans to hold a referendum on whether to allow him a third term in office. According to the constitution, a new parliament was elected within three months.

2009 Nigerien constitutional crisis
. The military took over the country and President Tandja was put in prison, charged with corruption.

The military kept their promise to return the country to democratic civilian rule. A constitutional referendum and national elections were held. A presidential election was held on 31 January 2011, but as no clear winner emerged, run-off elections were held on 12 March 2011. Mahamadou Issoufou of the Nigerien Party for Democracy and Socialism was elected president. A parliamentary election was held at the same time.[100][101][102]

Foreign relations

Niger pursues a moderate foreign policy and maintains friendly relations with the West and the Islamic world as well as non-aligned countries. It belongs to the UN and its main specialized agencies and in 1980–81 served on the

UN Security Council
. Niger maintains a special relationship with former colonial power France and has close relations with its West African neighbors.

Niger is a charter member of the

Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). The westernmost regions of Niger are joined with contiguous regions of Mali and Burkina Faso under the Liptako–Gourma Authority
.

The border dispute with Benin, inherited from colonial times and concerning inter alia Lété Island in the Niger River, was solved by the International Court of Justice in 2005 to Niger's advantage.

Military

Soldiers from the 322nd Parachute Regiment practice field tactics with the U.S. Army, 2007

The Niger Armed Forces (Forces armées nigériennes) are the military and paramilitary forces of Niger, under the president as supreme commander. They consist of the Niger Army (Armée de Terre), the Niger Air Force (Armée de l'Air) and the auxiliary paramilitary forces, such as the National Gendarmerie (Gendarmerie nationale) and the National Guard (Garde nationale). Both paramilitary forces are trained in military fashion and have some military responsibilities in wartime. In peace time their duties are mostly policing duties.

The armed forces are composed of approximately 12,900 personnel, including 3,700 gendarmes, 3,200 national guards, 300 air force personnel, and 6,000 army personnel. The armed forces of Niger have been involved in several military coups over the years with the most recent in 2023.[103] Niger's armed forces have a long history of military cooperation with France and the United States. From 2013, Niamey was home to a U.S. drone base. On Saturday, March 16, 2024, Niger's government announced that it was breaking off "with immediate effect" its military cooperation agreement with the United States.[104]

Judicial system

The current Judiciary of Niger was established with the creation of the Fourth Republic in 1999. The constitution of December 1992 was revised by national referendum on 12 May 1996 and, again, by referendum, revised to the current version on 18 July 1999. It is based on the

Code Napoleon "Inquisitorial system", established in Niger during French colonial rule and the 1960 Constitution of Niger. The Court of Appeals reviews questions of fact and law, while the Supreme Court reviews application of the law and constitutional questions. The High Court of Justice (HCJ) deals with cases involving senior government officials. The justice system also includes civil criminal courts, customary courts, traditional mediation, and a military court.[105] The military court provides the same rights as civil criminal courts; however, customary courts do not. The military court cannot try civilians.[106]

Law enforcement

Law enforcement in Niger is the responsibility of the Ministry of Defense through the

National Police is primarily responsible for law enforcement in urban areas. Outside big cities and in rural areas, this responsibility falls on the National Gendarmerie and the National Guard
.

Government finance

Government finance is derived from revenue exports (mining, oil and agricultural exports) as well as various forms of taxes collected by the government. In the past, foreign aid has contributed to large percentages of the budget. In 2013, Niger's government has adopted a zero-deficit budget of 1.279 trillion CFA francs ($2.53 billion) which is claimed to balance revenues and expenditures by an 11% reduction in the budget from the previous year.[107]

The 2014 budget was 1.867 trillion CFA which is distributed as follows according to: public debt (76,703,692,000 CFA), personnel expenditures (210,979,633,960 CFA), operating expenditures (128,988,777,711 CFA); subsidies and transfers: 308,379,641,366 CFA) and investment (1,142,513,658,712 CFA).[108]

Foreign aid

The importance of external support for Niger's development is demonstrated by the fact that about 45% of the government's FY 2002 budget, including 80% of its capital budget, derives from donor resources.

World Food Program, and United Nations Population Fund
).

Other principal donors include the United States, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Canada, and

USAID does not have an office in Niger, the United States is a major donor, contributing nearly $10 million each year to Niger's development.[citation needed] The U.S. also is a major partner in policy coordination in such areas as food security and HIV/AIDS.[citation needed
]

Administrative divisions

Administrative divisions of Niger

Niger is divided into 7 Regions and one capital district. These Regions are subdivided into 36 departments. The 36 Departments are currently broken down into Communes of varying types. As of 2006 there were 265 communes, including communes urbaines (Urban Communes: as subdivisions of major cities), communes rurales (Rural Communes), in sparsely populated areas and postes administratifs (Administrative Posts) for largely uninhabited desert areas or military zones.

Rural communes may contain official villages and settlements, while Urban Communes are divided into quarters. Niger subvisions were renamed in 2002, in the implementation of a decentralisation project, first begun in 1998. Previously, Niger was divided into 7 Departments, 36 Arrondissements, and Communes. These subdivisions were administered by officials appointed by the national government. These offices will be replaced in the future by democratically elected councils at each level.

The pre-2002 departments (renamed as regions) and capital district are:

Largest cities and towns

 
 
Largest cities or towns in Niger
According to the 2012 Census[110]
Rank Name Region Pop.
Niamey
Niamey
Maradi
Maradi
1 Niamey Niamey 978,029 Zinder
Zinder
Tahoua
Tahoua
2 Maradi Maradi 267,249
3 Zinder Zinder 235,605
4 Tahoua Tahoua 117,826
5 Agadez Agadez 110,497
6 Arlit Agadez 78,651
7 Birni-N'Konni Tahoua 63,169
8 Dosso Dosso 58,671
9 Gaya Dosso 45,465
10 Tessaoua Maradi 43,409

Economy

A proportional representation of Niger exports, 2019

The economy of Niger centers on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world's largest uranium deposits. In 2021, Niger was the main supplier of uranium to the EU, followed by Kazakhstan and Russia.[111] Drought cycles, desertification, a 2.9% population growth rate, and the drop in world demand for uranium have undercut the economy.

Two trans-African automobile routes pass through Niger:

  • the
    Algiers-Lagos Highway
  • the
    Dakar-Ndjamena Highway

Niger shares a common currency, the

Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).[112]

In December 2000, Niger qualified for enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Fund program for

Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) and concluded an agreement with the Fund for Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility
(PRGF). Debt relief provided under the enhanced HIPC initiative significantly reduces Niger's annual debt service obligations, freeing funds for expenditures on basic health care, primary education, HIV/AIDS prevention, rural infrastructure, and other programs geared at poverty reduction.

In December 2005, it was announced that Niger had received 100% multilateral

IMF, which translates into the forgiveness of approximately US$86 million in debts to the IMF, excluding the remaining assistance under HIPC. Nearly half of the government's budget is derived from foreign donor resources. Future growth may be sustained by the exploitation of oil, gold, coal, and other mineral resources. Uranium prices have recovered somewhat in the last few years.[when?] A drought and locust infestation in 2005 led to food shortages for as many as 2.5 million Nigeriens.[citation needed
]

Niger was ranked 131st in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[113]

Demographics

Population age pyramid of Niger in 2020
Wodaabe women with traditional facial tattoos

As of 2021, the population of Niger was 25,252,722.[14][15] Niger's population has rapidly increased from its population of 3.4 million in 1960 and has a current growth rate of 3.3% (7.1 children per mother).[114][115]

This growth rate is one of the highest in the world and is a source of concern for the government and international agencies.[116] The population is predominantly young, with 49.2% under 15 years old and 2.7% over 65 years, and predominantly rural with only 21% living in urban areas.[114]

A 2005 study[

which?] stated that over 800,000 people (nearly 8% of the population) in Niger are enslaved.[117][118][119]

Urban settlements

Cities of Niger
Rank City Population Region
2001 Census[120] 2012 Census[120]
1. Niamey 690,286 978,029 Niamey
2. Maradi 148,017 267,249 Maradi Region
3. Zinder 170,575 235,605 Zinder Region
4. Tahoua 73,002 117,826 Tahoua Region
5. Agadez 77,060 110,497 Agadez Region
6. Arlit 68,835 78,651 Agadez Region
7.
Birni N'Konni
44,663 63,169 Tahoua Region
8. Dosso 43,561 58,671 Dosso Region
9. Gaya 28,385 45,465 Dosso Region
10. Tessaoua 31,667 43,409 Maradi Region

Ethnic groups

Ethnic Groups in Niger (2001 Census)[121]
Ethnic Groups percent
Hausa
55.4%
Zarma & Songhai
21%
Tuareg
9.3%
Fula
8.5%
Kanuri
4.7%
Toubou
0.4%
Arab
0.4%
Gurma
0.4%
Other
0.1%

As in most West African countries, Niger has a wide variety of ethnic groups. The ethnic makeup of Niger in 2001 was as follows:

Tuaregs dominate the Agadez region in Northern Niger.[121]

Languages

French, inherited from the colonial period, is the

Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie
since 1970.

Niger has ten recognized

Gourmanchéma, Hausa, Kanuri, Zarma and Songhay, Tamasheq, Tassawaq and Tebu.[1] Each is spoken as a first language primarily by the ethnic group with which it is associated.[122][123]
Hausa and Zarma-Songhai, the two most spoken languages, are widely spoken throughout the country as first or second languages.

Religion

Religion in Niger
religion percent[3]
Islam
99.3%
Christianity
0.3%
Animism
0.2%
Irreligious
0.1%

Niger is a

Religious freedom is protected by Article 30 of the same constitution. Islam, widespread in the region since the 10th century, has greatly shaped the culture and mores of the people of Niger. Islam is the most dominant religion, practiced by 99.3% of the population according to the 2012 census.[3]

The other two main religions of Niger are

World Watch List, 'reflecting how pressure is increasing on Christians in this [...] nation.'[124] Relations between Muslims and Christians have generally been cordial, according to the respective representatives of Christian and Muslim groups in Niger.[125]

Worshipers leaving the grand mosque of Kiota after Friday prayers

The numbers of Animist practitioners are a point of contention. As recently as the late 19th century, much of the south center of the nation was unreached by Islam, and the conversion of some rural areas has been only partial. There are still areas where animist based festivals and traditions (such as the

Maguzawa religion. There are also some tiny Boudouma and Songhay animist communities in the southwest.[126] Over the past decade, syncretic practices have become less common among Muslim Nigerien communities.[125]

Islam

The majority of Muslims in Niger are

Berber practices.[citation needed
]

Filingué

Both

Sanusiya in the far northeast.[126]

A small center of followers of

Salafi movement within Sunni Islam have appeared in the last thirty years, in the capital and in Maradi.[129] These small groups, linked to similar groups in Jos, Nigeria, came to public prominence in the 1990s during a series of religious riots.[130][131]

Despite this, Niger maintains a tradition as a secular state, protected by law.[132] Interfaith relations are deemed very good, and the forms of Islam traditionally practiced in most of the country are marked by tolerance of other faiths and lack of restrictions on personal freedom.[133] Alcohol, such as the locally produced Bière Niger, is sold openly in most of the country.

Education

A primary classroom in Niger

The

literacy rate of Niger is among the lowest in the world; in 2005 it was estimated to be only 28.7% (42.9% male and 15.1% female).[134] Primary education in Niger is compulsory for six years.[135] The primary school enrollment and attendance rates are low, particularly for girls.[135] In 1997, the gross primary enrollment rate was 29.3 percent, and in 1996, the net primary enrollment rate was 24.5 percent.[135]

About 60 percent of children who finish primary schools are boys, as the majority of girls rarely attend school for more than a few years.[135] Children are often forced to work rather than attend school, particularly during planting or harvest periods.[135] Nomadic children in the north of the country often do not have access to schools.[135]

Health

The child mortality rate in Niger (deaths among children between the ages of 1 and 4) is high (248 per 1,000) due to generally poor health conditions and inadequate nutrition for most of the country's children. According to the organization

infant mortality rate.[136]

Maradi Reference Hospital

Niger also has the highest

maternal mortality rate in the world at 820 deaths/100,000 live births.[139] There were 3 physicians and 22 nurses per 100,000 persons in 2006.[140]

Clean drinking water is scarce by global standards, with significant differences between urban and rural areas. Niger is located at the bottom of the UN Human Development Index. Roughly 92% of the population lives in rural areas in the Tillabéri region along the western frontier, and there is a chronic scarcity of clean water, particularly during the hot season, when temperatures regularly exceed 40 degrees Celsius.[141][142][143]

Just 40% of the 30,000 inhabitants in Téra, a city northwest of the country's capital of Niamey and near to the Burkina Faso border, have access to a working public water infrastructure.[141][144][145] Société de Patrimoine des Eaux du Niger (SPEN), Niger's water authority, opened ten boreholes and built a water treatment plant in 2018 to provide potable water to Téra and the surrounding areas. The water supply ran out about a year later, and the water treatment facility was forced to close.[141][146]

With the help of a donation fund from the

Dutch government, the European Investment Bank is collaborating with the Niger water authority to find solutions to Niger's water issues. The World Bank identified Niger as one of the 18 fragile regions of Sub-Saharan Africa. The EU bank has a history of investing in regions like these.[147]

The European Investment Bank and the Niger Water Authority are looking at two options for dealing with Téra's water shortages. The first choice is to repair the water tank on the outskirts of town. Another choice is to treat and transport water from the Niger River, which is located more than 100 kilometres to the east. Villages between Téra and the Niger River will also have access to sewage. The European Investment Bank will also look at renewable energy as a way to save costs.[147]

Culture

Sultan of Damagaram in the Hausa city of Zinder. The Sultanate continues to operate in a ceremonial function into the 21st century.
Toubou musicians at a formal ceremony

Nigerien culture is marked by variation, evidence of the cultural crossroads which

Kanem–Bornu Empire; and the Tuareg nomads of the Aïr Mountains
and the Sahara in the vast north.

Each of these communities, along with smaller ethnic groups like the pastoral Wodaabe Fula, brought their own cultural traditions to the new state of Niger. While successive post-independence governments have tried to forge a shared national culture, this has been slow forming, in part because the major Nigerien communities have their own cultural histories, and in part because Nigerien ethnic groups such as the Hausa, Tuareg and Kanuri are but part of larger ethnic communities which cross borders introduced under colonialism.

Until the 1990s, government and politics was inordinately dominated by

Maine-Soroa, have often looked culturally more to Hausaland in Nigeria than Niamey. Between 1996 and 2003, primary school attendance was around 30%,[148] including 36% of males and only 25% of females. Additional education occurs through madrasas
.

Festivals and cultural events

Guérewol festival

Participants in the Guérewol perform the Guérewol dance, 1997.

The Guérewol festival is a traditional Wodaabe cultural event that takes place in

National Geographic
.

Cure Salée festival

"La Cure salée" (English: Salt Cure) is a yearly festival of Tuareg and Wodaabe nomads in

Tuareg
camel riders followed with camel and horse races, songs, dances, and storytelling.

Media

Niger began developing diverse media in the late 1990s. Prior to the Third Republic, Nigeriens only had access to tightly controlled state media.[149] Now Niamey contains scores of newspapers and magazines; some, like Le Sahel, are government operated, while many are critical of the government.[150][151] Radio is the most important medium, as television sets are beyond the buying power of many of the rural poor, and illiteracy prevents print media from becoming a mass medium.[97]

In addition to the national and regional radio services of the state broadcaster ORTN, there are four privately owned radio networks which total more than 100 stations. Three of them—the Anfani Group, Sarounia and Tenere—are urban-based commercial-format FM networks in the major towns.[152] There is also a network of over 80 community radio stations spread across all seven regions of the country, governed by the Comité de Pilotage de Radios de Proximité (CPRP), a civil society organisation. The independent-sector radio networks are collectively estimated by CPRP officials to cover some 7.6 million people, or about 73% of the population (2005).

Aside from Nigerien radio stations, the BBC's Hausa service is listened to on FM repeaters across wide parts of the country, particularly in the south, close to the border with Nigeria. Radio France Internationale also rebroadcasts in French through some of the commercial stations, via satellite. Tenere FM also runs a national independent television station of the same name.[152]

Despite relative freedom at the national level, Nigerien journalists say they are often pressured by local authorities.[153] The state ORTN network depends financially on the government, partly through a surcharge on electricity bills, and partly through direct subsidy. The sector is governed by the Conseil Supérieur de Communications, established as an independent body in the early 1990s, since 2007 headed by Daouda Diallo. International human rights groups have criticised the government since at least 1996 as using regulation and police to punish criticism of the state.[154][155]

See also

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Notes

  1. Arabic: النيجر; Fula: Niiser; Hausa
    : Nijar
  2. ^ French: République du Niger, Hausa: Jamhuriyar Nijar

Sources

External links

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