Legume
Legumes (
Legumes are notable in that most of them have symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in structures called root nodules. For that reason, they play a key role in crop rotation.
Terminology
The term pulse, as used by the United Nations'
Some Fabaceae, such as Scotch broom and other Genisteae, are leguminous but are usually not called legumes by farmers, who tend to restrict that term to food crops.[5]
History
Neanderthals used pulses when cooking meals 70,000 years ago.[6] Archaeologists have discovered traces of pulse production around
In the United States, the domesticated soybean was introduced in 1770 by Benjamin Franklin after he sent seeds to Philadelphia from France. Henry Ford, a vegetarian, was the first person to use soybeans for large-scale industrial purposes. Concentrating on his company, from 1932 to 1933 he invested over 1 million dollars in research on soybeans. Prior to World War II, 40% of cooking oil was imported into the US. When the war came, supply routes were disrupted, which encouraged the soybean culture in the US. Due to the years of research funded by Henry Ford, the domestic soybean oil industry was born.[10] Between 1970 and 1976, soybean production increased approximately 30%. Oil yield from bulk soybeans averages about 18%. Its modern-day usage ranges from margarine, salad oils, shortening and the previously mentioned cooking oil.[11]
Uses
Cultivated legumes encompass a diverse range of agricultural classifications, spanning forage, grain, flowering, pharmaceutical/industrial, fallow/green manure, and timber categories. A notable characteristic of many commercially cultivated legume species is their versatility, often assuming multiple roles concurrently. The extent of these roles is contingent upon the stage of maturity at which they are harvested.
Human consumption
Grain legumes
Legumes are used as a key ingredient in vegan meat and dairy
Nutritional value
Legumes are a significant source of
Legumes are also an excellent source of
Forage
Forage legumes are of two broad types. Some, like
The type of crop(s) grown or animal rearing will be dependent on the farming system, either vegetables, tubers, grains, cattle etc. In cattle rearing, legume trees such as Gliricidia sepium can be planted along edges of field to provide shade for cattle, the leaves and bark are often eaten by cattle. Green manure can also be grown between periods when crops of economic importance are harvested prior to the next crops to be planted.[20]
Other uses
Legume species grown for their flowers include
Some legume trees, like the honey locust (Gleditsia) can be used in agroforestry.[21] Others, including the black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia),[22] Kentucky coffeetree (Gymnocladus dioicus),[23] Laburnum,[24] and the woody climbing vine Wisteria, have poisonous elements.
Classification
- Dry beans (FAOSTAT code 0176, Phaseolus spp. including several species now in Vigna)
- Kidney bean, navy bean, pinto bean, black turtle bean, haricot bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)
- Phaseolus lunatus)
- Vigna angularis)
- Vigna radiata)
- Black gram, urad (Vigna mungo)
- Scarlet runner bean(Phaseolus coccineus)
- Ricebean(Vigna umbellata)
- Moth bean(Vigna aconitifolia)
- Tepary bean(Phaseolus acutifolius)
- Dry broad beans (code 0181, Vicia faba)
- Horse bean (Vicia faba equina)
- Broad bean (Vicia faba)
- Field bean (Vicia faba)
- Dry peas (code 0187, Pisum spp.)
- Garden pea (Pisum sativum var. sativum)
- Protein pea (Pisum sativum var. arvense)
- Chickpea, garbanzo, Bengal gram (code 0191, Cicer arietinum)
- Dry cowpea, black-eyed pea, blackeye bean (code 0195, Vigna unguiculata)
- Pigeon pea, Arhar/Toor, cajan pea, Congo bean, gandules (code 0197, Cajanus cajan)
- Lentil (code 0201, Lens culinaris)
- Bambara groundnut, earth pea (code 0203, Vigna subterranea)
- Vetch, common vetch (code 0205, Vicia sativa)
- Lupins(code 0210, Lupinus spp.)
- Pulses NES (code 0211), Minor pulses, including:
- Lablab, hyacinth bean (Lablab purpureus)
- Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis), sword bean (Canavalia gladiata)
- Winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus)
- Velvet bean, cowitch (Mucuna pruriens var. utilis)
- Yam bean (Pachyrhizus erosus)
- Lablab, hyacinth bean (
Pollination
Legumes can either be
Some tropical legumes that are closely self-pollinated are:
Two legumes used for pasture with cross-pollination are Desmodium intortum and Desmodium uncinatum. When the flower is opened, this is the only time fertilization will take place. These two species' characteristics vary in morphology and ruggedness.[26]
Nitrogen fixation
Many legumes contain symbiotic bacteria called Rhizobia within root nodules of their root systems (plants belonging to the genus Styphnolobium are one exception to this rule). These bacteria have the special ability of fixing nitrogen from atmospheric, molecular nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3).[27] The chemical reaction is:
- N2 + 8 H+ + 8 e− → 2 NH3 + H2
Ammonia is then converted to another form, ammonium (NH+4), usable by (some) plants by the following reaction:
- NH3 + H+ → NH+4
This arrangement means that the root nodules are sources of nitrogen for legumes, making them relatively rich in plant proteins. All proteins contain nitrogenous amino acids. Nitrogen is therefore a necessary ingredient in the production of proteins. Hence, legumes are among the best sources of plant protein.
When a legume plant dies in the field, for example following the harvest, all of its remaining nitrogen, incorporated into amino acids inside the remaining plant parts, is released back into the soil. In the soil, the amino acids are converted to nitrate (NO−3), making the nitrogen available to other plants, thereby serving as fertilizer for future crops.[28][29]
In many traditional and organic farming practices, crop rotation involving legumes is common. By alternating between legumes and non-legumes, sometimes planting non-legumes two times in a row and then a legume, the field usually receives a sufficient amount of nitrogenous compounds to produce a good result, even when the crop is non-leguminous. Legumes are sometimes referred to as "green manure".
Sri Lanka developed the farming practice known as coconut-soybean intercropping. Grain legumes are grown in coconut (Cocos nuficera) groves in two ways: intercropping or as a cash crop. These are grown mainly for their protein, vegetable oil and ability to uphold soil fertility.[30] However, continuous cropping after 3–4 years decrease grain yields significantly.[31]
Distribution and production
Legumes are widely distributed as the third-largest
Storage
Seed viability decreases with longer storage time. Studies done on
Pests and diseases
A common pest of grain legumes that is noticed in the tropical and subtropical Asia, Africa, Australia and Oceania are minuscule flies that belong to the family
Common legume diseases include
Abiotic problems include nutrient deficiencies, (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, copper, magnesium, manganese, boron, zinc), pollutants (air, water, soil, pesticide injury, fertilizer burn), toxic concentration of minerals, and unfavorable growth conditions.[40]
International Year of Pulses
The International Year of Pulses 2016 (IYP 2016) was declared by the
See also
References
- ^ "What is a Pulse?". Pulse Canada. Archived from the original on 3 March 2022. Retrieved 3 March 2022.
- ^ "Oilseed Crops - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2022-04-07.
- ^ "Forage Crops - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2022-04-07.
- ^ Boston, 677 Huntington Avenue; Ma 02115 +1495‑1000 (2019-10-28). "Legumes and Pulses". The Nutrition Source. Archived from the original on 2022-04-21. Retrieved 2022-04-07.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ "Leguminous Plant Puns | A list of puns related to "Leguminous Plant"". punstoppable.com. Retrieved 2022-04-07.
- ^ Hunt, Katie (2022-11-22). "Neanderthals cooked meals with pulses 70,000 years ago". cnn.com.
- ISBN 978-0-85785-078-2.
The earliest culinary texts to have survived are in the form of three cuneiform tablets dated to about 1600 BCE. [...] [T]ucked away among a series of porridges there is one recipe for husked lentils [...]. [I]n any case it is the very oldest explicit legume recipe on earth. [...] The Egyptians also used lentils as funerary offerings and in meals to feed the dead in the underworld. Large stores were found beneath Zoser's pyramid [...].
- ISBN 1-61364-696-8.
- PMID 30588539.
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- ISBN 0-12-521160-0.
- ^ "List of Grain Legumes or Pulses". CropsReview.Com. 25 August 2021. Archived from the original on 16 July 2019. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
- ^ Kurlovich BS, Repyev SI, eds. (1995). The Gene Bank and Breeding of Grain Legumes (lupine, vetch, soya and bean). Theoretical basis of plant breeding. Vol. 111. St. Petersburg: N. I. Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry. p. 438.
- ^ Nicholas, Lorna (2020-05-18). "Wide Open Agriculture enters multi-billion-dollar plant-based protein market". Small Caps. Retrieved 2021-02-27.
- ^ "Full of beans: Pulses come with flavor challenge". Food Dive. 2017-04-06. Retrieved 2021-03-08.
- ^ Smith, George (2018-02-13). "Pulse raising: Grain legume market grows by 37 per cent in Europe - Meat substitutes have helped drive soaring market interest in pulses, or grain legumes, across Europe, a recent study has found". New Food Magazine. Retrieved 2021-03-08.
- ^ "Nutrition facts for Chickpeas (garbanzo beans, bengal gram), mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt, 100 g, USDA Nutrient Database, version SR-21". Conde Nast. 2014. Archived from the original on 5 December 2018. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
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- ISBN 089118046X.
- ISBN 0-87857-989-3.
- ^ "Gleditsia triacanthos (honey locust)". CABI. 10 December 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
- ^ "Are black locust trees toxic?". www.poison.org. Archived from the original on 2022-09-10. Retrieved 2022-09-10.
- ^ "Kentucky coffeetree | Department of Horticulture". www.uky.edu. Archived from the original on 2022-10-01. Retrieved 2022-09-10.
- ^ "Laburnum anagyroides (Common Laburnum, Golden Chain Tree, Golden Rain Tree) | North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox". plants.ces.ncsu.edu. Archived from the original on 2022-09-10. Retrieved 2022-09-10.
- ^ "Pulses and Derived Products". Definition and Classification of Commodities. Food and Agriculture Organization. 1994. Archived from the original on 2015-12-07. Retrieved 2018-07-22.
- ISBN 0-333-26820-2.
- ^ Deacon J. "The Nitrogen cycle and Nitrogen fixation". Institute of Cell and Molecular Biology, The University of Edinburgh. Archived from the original on March 16, 2015. Retrieved March 1, 2015.
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- ^ Smil V (2000). Cycles of Life. Scientific American Library.
- OCLC 475699754. AVRDC No.86253.
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- ^ Stevens PF. "Fabaceae". Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 7 May 2006. Archived from the original on 12 May 2002. Retrieved 28 April 2008.
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- S2CID 38691512.
- ISBN 92-5-100980-5.
- ISBN 92-9058-006-2.
- ^ Pest and disease control on legumes, onions, leeks, outdoor salad crops and minor vegetables. Great Britain: Alnwick : Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food ADAS. 1984. pp. 11–13.
- ISBN 0-87055-336-4.
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- ^ a b United Nations D. "The International Year of Pulses". United Nations. Archived from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
- ^ "International Year of Pulses 2016 – IYP2016". Archived from the original on 6 December 2017. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
Further reading
- "Pulses". NHS Choices. April 30, 2013. Archivedfrom the original on January 26, 2017. Retrieved January 9, 2017.
- Varshney RK, Kudapa H (December 2013). "Legume biology: the basis for crop improvement". Functional Plant Biology. 40 (12). CSIRO Publishing: v–iii. PMID 32481187.