Lentil
Lentil | |
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Puy (left), green (center), and red (right) lentils | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Rosids |
Order: | Fabales |
Family: | Fabaceae |
Subfamily: | Faboideae |
Genus: | Vicia |
Species: | V. lens
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Binomial name | |
Vicia lens (L.) Coss. & Germ. (1845)
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Subspecies[1] | |
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Synonyms[1] | |
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The lentil (Vicia lens or Lens culinaris) is an edible legume. It is an annual plant known for its lens-shaped seeds. It is about 40 cm (16 in) tall, and the seeds grow in pods, usually with two seeds in each.
Lentils are used around the world for
Botanical description
Name
Many different names in different parts of the world are used for the crop lentil.[2] The first use of the word lens to designate a specific genus was in the 17th century by the botanist Tournefort.[3] The word "lens" for the lentil is of classical Roman or Latin origin, possibly from a prominent Roman family named Lentulus, just as the family name "Cicero" was derived from the chickpea, Cicer arietinum, and "Fabia" (as in Quintus Fabius Maximus) from the fava bean (Vicia faba).[4]
Systematics
The genus Vicia is part of the
The former genus Lens consisted of the cultivated L. culinaris and six related wild taxa. Among the different taxa of wild lentils, L. orientalis was considered to be the progenitor of the cultivated lentil and was generally classified as L. culinaris subsp. orientalis.[2]
Lentil is hypogeal, which means the cotyledons of the germinating seed stay in the ground and inside the seed coat. Therefore, it is less vulnerable to frost, wind erosion, or insect attack.[5]
The plant is a diploid, annual, bushy herb of erect, semierect, or spreading and compact growth and normally varies from 30 to 50 centimetres (12 to 20 in) in height. It has many hairy branches and its stem is slender and angular. The
Lentils are
Types
This section needs additional citations for verification. (October 2015) |
Types can be classified according to their size, whether they are split or whole, or shelled or unshelled. Seed coats can range from light green to deep purple, as well as being tan, grey, brown, black or mottled. Shelled lentils show the colour of the cotyledon which can be yellow, orange, red, or green.
Red-cotyledon types:
- Nipper (Australia)
- Northfield (Australia)
- Cobber (Australia)
- Digger (Australia)
- Nugget (Australia)
- Aldinga (Australia)
- Masoor dal (unshelled lentils with a brown seed coat and an orange-red cotyledon)
- Petite crimson (shelled Masoor lentils)
- Red Chief (light tan seed coat and red cotyledon)
Small green/brown-seed coat types:
- Eston Green
- Pardina (Spain)
- Verdina (Spain)
Medium green/brown-seed coat types
- Avondale (United States)
- Matilda (Australia)
- Richlea
Large green/brown-seed coat types:
- Boomer (Australia)
- Brewer's: a large brown lentil which is often considered the "regular" lentil in the United States[6]
- Castellana (Spanish)
- Laird: the commercial standard for large green lentils in western Canada[7]
- Mason
- Merrit
- Mosa (Spain)
- Naslada (Bulgaria)
- Pennell (United States)
- Riveland (United States)
Other types:
- Beluga: black, bead-like, lens-shaped, almost spherical, named for resemblance to beluga caviar.[8] Called Indianhead in Canada.
- Macachiados: big yellow Mexican lentils
- Protected Designation of Originname
- Alb-Leisa three traditional genotypes of lentils native to the Swabian Jura (Alps) in Germany and protected by the producers' association Öko-Erzeugergemeinschaft Alb-Leisa (engl. "Eco-producer association Alb-Leisa")
Lentil production – 2022[9] | |
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Country | (Millions of tonnes) |
Canada | 2.3 |
India | 1.3 |
Australia | 1.0 |
Turkey | 0.4 |
Russia | 0.3 |
World | 6.7 |
Production
In 2022, global production of lentils was 6.7 million tonnes. Canada produced the largest share, 2.2 million tonnes, or roughly 34% of the world's total output (table).[9], nearly all (95%) of it in Saskatchewan.[10] India was the world's second-largest producer, led by the states of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, which together account for roughly 70 percent of the national lentil production.[11]
Cultivation
History
The cultivated lentil Lens culinaris subsp. culinaris was derived from its wild subspecies L. culinaris subsp. orientalis, although other species may also have contributed some genes, according to
Lentil was domesticated in the Fertile Crescent of the Near East and then spread to Europe, the Middle East, North Africa and the Indo-Gangetic plain. The primary center of diversity for the domestic Lens culinaris as well as its wild progenitor L. culinaris ssp. orientalis is considered to be the Middle East. The oldest known carbonized remains of lentil from Greece's Franchthi Cave are dated to 11,000 BC. In archaeobotanical excavations carbonized remains of lentil seeds have been recovered from widely dispersed places such as Tell Ramad in Syria (6250–5950 BC), Aceramic Beidha in Jordan, Hacilar in Turkey (5800–5000 BC), Tepe Sabz (Ita. Tepe Sabz) in Iran (5500–5000 BC) and Argissa-Magula Tessaly in Greece (6000–5000 BC), along other places.[13]
Soil requirements
Lentils can grow on various soil types, from sand to clay loam, growing best in deep sandy loam soils with moderate fertility. A soil pH around 7 would be the best. Lentils do not tolerate flooding or water-logged conditions.[3]
Lentils improve the physical properties of soils and increase the yield of succeeding cereal crops.
Climate requirements
The conditions under which lentils are grown differ across different growing regions. In the
Seedbed requirements and sowing
The lentil requires a firm, smooth seedbed with most of the previous crop residues incorporated. For the seed placement and for later harvesting it is important that the surface is not uneven with large clods, stones, or protruding crop residue. It is also important that the soil be made friable and weed-free, so that seeding can be done at a uniform depth.[3]
The plant densities for lentils vary between genotypes, seed size, planting time and growing conditions, and also from region to region. In South Asia, a seed rate of 30 to 40 kilograms per hectare (27 to 36 pounds per acre) is recommended. In West Asian countries, a higher seed rate is recommended, and also leads to a higher yield. The seeds should be sown 3 to 4 centimetres (1+1⁄4 to 1+1⁄2 in) deep. In agriculturally mechanized countries, lentils are planted using grain drills, but many other areas still hand broadcast.[3]
Cultivation management, fertilization
In intercropping systems – a practice commonly used in lentil cultivation – herbicides may be needed to assure crop health.[14] Like many other legume crops, lentils can fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil with specific rhizobia.[citation needed] Lentils grow well under low fertilizer input conditions, although phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium, and sulfur may be used for nutrient-poor soils.[3]
Diseases
Below is a list of the most common lentil diseases.
Fungal diseases
Alternaria blight | |
Anthracnose | |
Aphanomyces root rot | Aphanomyces euteiches |
Ascochyta blight |
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Black root rot | Fusarium solani |
Black streak root rot | Thielaviopsis basicola |
Botrytis gray mold | Botrytis cinerea |
Cercospora leaf spot |
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Collar rot |
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Cylindrosporium leaf spot and stem canker | Cylindrosporium sp. |
Downy mildew |
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Dry root rot |
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Fusarium wilt | Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lentis |
Helminthosporium leaf spot | Helminthosporium sp. |
Leaf rot | Choanephora sp. |
Leaf yellowing | Cladosporium herbarum |
Ozonium wilt | Ozonium texanum var. parasiticum |
Phoma leaf spot | Phoma medicaginis
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Powdery mildew |
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Pythium root and seedling rot | |
Rust |
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Sclerotinia stem rot | Sclerotinia sclerotiorum |
Spot blotch | Bipolaris sorokiniana
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Stemphylium blight |
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Wet root rot |
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Nematodes, parasitic
Cyst nematode | Heterodera ciceri |
Reniform nematode | Rotylenchulus reniformis |
Root knot nematode | |
Root lesion nematode | Pratylenchus spp. |
Stem nematode | Ditylenchus dipsaci |
Viral diseases
Bean (pea) leaf roll virus | Beet western yellows virus |
Bean yellow mosaic | Bean yellow mosaic virus |
Broad bean mottle | Broad bean mottle virus |
Broad bean stain | Broad bean stain virus |
Cucumber mosaic | Cucumber mosaic virus |
Pea seedborne mosaic | Pea seed-borne mosaic virus |
Use by humans
This section needs additional citations for verification. (June 2021) |
Processing
A combination of gravity, screens and air flow is used to clean and sort lentils by shape and density. After destoning, they may be sorted by a color sorter and then packaged.
A major part of the world's red lentil production undergoes a secondary processing step. These lentils are dehulled, split and polished. In the Indian subcontinent, this process is called dal milling.[3] The moisture content of the lentils prior to dehulling is crucial to guarantee a good dehulling efficiency.[3] The hull of lentils usually accounts for 6 to 7 percent of the total seed weight, which is lower than most legumes.[15] Lentil flour can be produced by milling the seeds, like cereals.
Culinary use
Lentils can be eaten soaked, germinated, fried, baked or boiled – the most common preparation method.[3] The seeds require a cooking time of 10 to 40 minutes, depending on the variety; small varieties with the husk removed, such as the common red lentil, require shorter cooking times (and unlike most legumes don't require soaking). Most varieties have a distinctive, earthy flavor. Lentils with husks remain whole with moderate cooking, while those without husks tend to disintegrate into a thick purée, which may enable various dishes. The composition of lentils leads to a high emulsifying capacity which can be even increased by dough fermentation in bread making.[16]
Lentil dishes
Lentils are used worldwide in many different dishes. Lentil dishes are most widespread throughout
In the Indian subcontinent, Fiji, Mauritius, Singapore and the Caribbean, lentil curry is part of the everyday diet, eaten with both rice and roti. Boiled lentils and lentil stock are used to thicken most vegetarian curries. They are also used as stuffing in dal parathas and puri for breakfast or snacks. Lentils are also used in many regional varieties of sweets. Lentil flour is used to prepare several different bread varieties, such as papadam.
They are frequently combined with
Lentils are used to prepare an inexpensive and nutritious
Lentils are commonly eaten in Ethiopia in a stew-like dish called kik, or kik wot, one of the dishes people eat with Ethiopia's national food, injera flatbread. Yellow lentils are used to make a non-spicy stew, which is one of the first solid foods Ethiopians feed their babies.
Lentils were a chief part of the diet of ancient Iranians, who consumed lentils daily in the form of a stew poured over rice.
Nutritional value
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
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Energy | 477 kJ (114 kcal) |
19.54 g | |
Sugars | 1.8 g |
Dietary fiber | 7.9 g |
0.38 g | |
9.02 g | |
Niacin (B3) | 7% 1.06 mg |
Pantothenic acid (B5) | 13% 0.638 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 10% 0.178 mg |
Folate (B9) | 45% 181 μg |
Vitamin B12 | 0% 0 μg |
Vitamin C | 2% 1.5 mg |
Vitamin D | 0% 0 IU |
Vitamin E | 1% 0.11 mg |
Vitamin K | 1% 1.7 μg |
Copper | 28% 0.251 mg |
Iron | 18% 3.3 mg |
Magnesium | 9% 36 mg |
Manganese | 21% 0.494 mg |
Phosphorus | 14% 180 mg |
Potassium | 12% 369 mg |
Selenium | 5% 2.8 μg |
Sodium | 10% 238 mg |
Zinc | 12% 1.27 mg |
Other constituents | Quantity |
Water | 69.64 g |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[17] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[18] |
Boiled lentils are 70% water, 20%
Digestive effects
The low levels of readily digestible starch (5 percent) and high levels of slowly digested starch make lentils of potential value to people with diabetes.[20][21] The remaining 65% of the starch is a resistant starch classified as RS1.[22] A minimum of 10% in starch from lentils escapes digestion and absorption in the small intestine (therefore called "resistant starch").[23] Additional resistant starch is synthesized from gelatinized starch, during cooling, after lentils are cooked.[24]
Lentils also have
Breeding
Although lentils have been an important crop for centuries, lentil breeding and genetic research have a relatively short history compared to that of many other crops. Since the inception of The International Center for Agriculture Research in the Dry Areas (
The focus lies on high yielding and stable cultivars for diverse environments to match the demand of a growing population.[27] In particular, progress in quantity and quality as well as in the resistance to disease and abiotic stresses are the major breeding aims.[2] Several varieties have been developed applying conventional breeding methodologies.[28] Serious genetic improvement for yield has been made, however, the full potential of production and productivity could not yet be tapped due to several biotic and abiotic stresses.[27]
Wild Lens species are a significant source of genetic variation for improving the relatively narrow genetic base of this crop. The wild species possess many diverse traits including disease resistances and abiotic stress tolerances. The above-mentioned L. nigricans and L. orientalis possess morphological similarities to the cultivated L. culinaris. But only L. culinaris and L. culinaris subsp. orientalis are crossable and produce fully fertile seed. Between the different related species hybridisation barriers exist. According to their inter-crossability Lens species can be divided into three gene pools:
- Primary gene pool: L. culinaris (and L. culinaris subsp. orientalis) and L. odemensis
- Secondary gene pool: L. ervoides and L. nigricans
- Tertiary gene pool: L. lamottei and L. tomentosus
Crosses generally fail between members of different gene pools. However, plant growth regulators and/or embryo rescue allows the growth of viable hybrids between groups. Even if crosses are successful, many undesired genes may be introduced as well in addition to the desired ones. This can be resolved by using a backcrossing programme. Thus, mutagenesis is crucial to create new and desirable varieties. According to Yadav et al. other biotechnology techniques which may impact on lentil breeding are micro-propagation using meristamatic explants, callus culture and regeneration, protoplast culture and doubled haploid production.[2]
There is a proposed revision of the gene pools using SNP phylogeny.[29]
See also
References
- ^ a b "Vicia lens (L.) Coss. & Germ." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 3 September 2023.
- ^ OCLC 213090571.
- ^ OCLC 435462765.
- ISBN 0-684-80001-2. pg. 483.
- ^ "Pulse Australia - Southern guide". pulseaus.com.au. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
- ^ "What To Do With Lentils And Why Bother". The Chalkboard. 17 March 2014. Retrieved 6 November 2017.
- .
- ^ "Cook's Thesaurus: Lentils". Foodsubs.com. Retrieved 15 December 2015.
- ^ a b "Production of lentils in 2022; Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Year from pick lists". United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division. 2024. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
- ^ "Lentil production". Lentils.org, Saskatchewan Pulse Growers. 2022. Retrieved 20 March 2022.
- ^ "India production of Lentil (Masur)". agriexchange.apeda.gov.in. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-351-44062-2.
The primary progenitor of the cultigen is evidently L. orientalis native to the Near East; the other species may have contributed some genetic diversity to the crop. L. culinaris (L. esculentus), the domesticate, differs from the wild species in having indehiscent pods, due to a single recessive gene, and nondormant seeds.
- ISBN 978-3-030-23399-0.
- ^ OCLC 213090571.
- ^ HUGHES, Joe S.; Swanson, Barry G. (1986). "Microstructure of lentil seeds (Lens culinaris)". Food Structure. 5: 241–246 – via digitalcommons.usu.edu.
- .
- ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". Retrieved 28 March 2024.
- )
- PMID 24837953.
- PMID 27497151.
- PMID 25061763.
- ^ Kawaljit Singh Sandhu, Seung-Taik Lim Digestibility of legume starches as influenced by their physical and structural properties Elsevier, 16 March 2007
- PMID 9137637.
- .
- ^ .
- ISSN 1750-3841.
- ^ ISSN 0019-5200.
- ^ "BATS: Methods of Plant Breeding".
- PMID 25815480.
Further reading
- ISBN 0-19-211579-0