Human nose
Human nose | |
---|---|
Details | |
Artery | sphenopalatine artery, greater palatine artery |
Vein | facial vein |
Nerve | external nasal nerve |
Identifiers | |
Latin | nasus |
TA98 | A06.1.01.001 A01.1.00.009 |
TA2 | 117 |
FMA | 46472 |
Anatomical terminology |
The human nose is the first organ of the respiratory system. It is also the principal organ in the olfactory system. The shape of the nose is determined by the nasal bones and the nasal cartilages, including the nasal septum, which separates the nostrils and divides the nasal cavity into two.
The nose has an important function in
Another major function of the nose is
The nose is also involved in the function of speech.
There are several plastic surgery procedures that can be done on the nose, known as rhinoplasties available to correct various structural defects or to change the shape of the nose. Defects may be congenital, or result from nasal disorders or from trauma. These procedures are a type of reconstructive surgery. Elective procedures to change a nose shape are a type of cosmetic surgery.
Structure
Several bones and cartilages make up the bony-cartilaginous framework of the nose, and the internal structure.[1] The nose is also made up of types of soft tissue such as skin, epithelia, mucous membrane, muscles, nerves, and blood vessels. In the skin there are sebaceous glands, and in the mucous membrane there are nasal glands.[2] The bones and cartilages provide strong protection for the internal structures of the nose. There are several muscles that are involved in movements of the nose. The arrangement of the cartilages allows flexibility through muscle control to enable airflow to be modified.[2]
Bones
The bony structure of the nose is provided by the maxilla, frontal bone, and a number of smaller bones.[3]
The topmost bony part of the nose is formed by the nasal part of the frontal bone, which lies between the brow ridges,
The wall separating the two cavities of the nose, the
The two maxilla bones join at the base of the nose at the lower nasal midline between the nostrils, and at the top of the philtrum to form the anterior nasal spine. This thin projection of bone holds the cartilaginous center of the nose.[5][6] It is also an important cephalometric landmark.[7]
Cartilages
The nasal cartilages are the septal, lateral, major alar, and minor alar cartilages.[8] The major and minor cartilages are also known as the greater and lesser alar cartilages. There is a narrow strip of cartilage called the vomeronasal cartilage that lies between the vomer and the septal cartilage.[9]
The
The nasal bones in the upper part of the nose are joined by the midline internasal suture. They join with the septal cartilage at a junction known as the rhinion. The rhinion is the midline junction where the nasal bone meets the septal cartilage. From the rhinion to the apex, or tip, the framework is of cartilage.
The major alar cartilages are thin, U-shaped plates of cartilage on each side of the nose that form the lateral and medial walls of the vestibule, known as the medial and lateral crura. The medial crura are attached to the septal cartilage, forming fleshy parts at the front of the nostrils on each side of the septum, called the medial crural footpods. The medial crura meet at the midline below the end of the septum to form the columella[11] and lobule. The lobule contains the tip of the nose and its base contains the nostrils.[3] At the peaks of the folds of the medial crura, they form the alar domes the tip-defining points of the nose, separated by a notch.[3] They then fold outwards, above and to the side of the nostrils forming the lateral crura.[12][2] The major alar cartilages are freely moveable and can respond to muscles to either open or constrict the nostrils.[13]
There is a reinforcing structure known as the nasal scroll that resists internal collapse from airflow pressure generated by normal breathing. This structure is formed by the junction between the lateral and major cartilages. Their edges interlock by one scrolling upwards and one scrolling inwards.[12][14]
Muscles
The muscles of the nose are a subgroup of the
The procerus muscle produces wrinkling over the bridge of the nose, and is active in concentration and frowning. It is a prime target for Botox procedures in the forehead to remove the lines between the eyes.[3]
The
The depressor septi nasi may sometimes be absent or rudimentary. The depressor septi pulls the columella, the septum, and the tip of the nose downwards. At the start of inspiration, this muscle tenses the nasal septum and with the dilator naris widens the nostrils.[3]
The levator labii superioris alaeque nasi divides into a medial and a lateral slip. The medial slip blends into the perichondrium of the major alar cartilage and its overlying skin. The lateral slip blends at the side of the upper lip with the
Soft tissue
The skin of the nose varies in thickness along its length.[3] From the glabella to the bridge (the nasofrontal angle), the skin is thick, fairly flexible, and mobile. It tapers to the bridge where it is thinnest and least flexible as it is closest to the underlying bone. From the bridge until the tip of the nose the skin is thin. The tip is covered in skin that is as thick as the top section, and has many large sebaceous glands.[3][13] The thickness of the skin varies but is still separated from the underlying bones and cartilage by four layers – a superficial fatty layer; a fibromuscular layer continued from the SMAS; a deep fatty layer, and the periosteum.[3]
Other areas of soft tissue are found where there is no support from cartilage; these include an area around the sides of the septum – the paraseptal area – an area around the lateral cartilages, an area at the top of the nostril, and an area in the alae.[3]
External nose
The nasal root is the top of the nose that attaches the nose to the forehead.[13] The nasal root is above the bridge and below the glabella, forming an indentation known as the nasion at the frontonasal suture where the frontal bone meets the nasal bones.[16] The nasal dorsum also known as the nasal ridge is the border between the root and the tip of the nose, which in profile can be variously shaped.[17] The ala of the nose (ala nasi, "wing of the nose"; plural alae) is the lower lateral surface of the external nose, shaped by the alar cartilage and covered in dense connective tissue.[1] The alae flare out to form a rounded eminence around the nostril.[17] Sexual dimorphism is evident in the larger nose of the male. This is due to the increased testosterone that thickens the brow ridge and the bridge of the nose making it wider.[18]
Differences in the symmetry of the nose have been noted in studies. Asymmetry is predominantly seen in wider left-sided nasal and other facial features.[19]
Nasal cavity
The
The nasal cavity is divided into two cavities by the nasal septum, and each is accessed by an external nostril.[13][1] The division into two cavities enables the functioning of the nasal cycle that slows down the conditioning process of the inhaled air.[21] At the back of the nasal cavity there are two openings, called
On the outer wall of each cavity are three shell-like bones called conchae, arranged as superior, middle and inferior nasal conchae. Below each concha is a corresponding superior, middle, and inferior nasal meatus, or passage.[1] Sometimes when the superior concha is narrow, a fourth supreme nasal concha is present situated above and sharing the space with the superior concha.[22] The term concha refers to the actual bone; when covered by soft tissue and mucosa, and functioning, a concha is termed a turbinate.[3] Excessive moisture as tears collected in the lacrimal sac travel down the nasolacrimal ducts where they drain into the inferior meatus in the nasal cavity.[23]
Most of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses is lined with respiratory epithelium as nasal mucosa. In the roof of each cavity is an area of specialised olfactory epithelium. This region is about 5 square cm, covering the superior concha, the cribriform plate, and the nasal septum.[24]
The nasal cavity has a
The borders of each nasal cavity are a roof, floor, medial wall (the septum), and lateral wall.[2][3] The middle part of the roof of the nasal cavity is composed of the horizontal, perforated cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, through which pass sensory fibres of the olfactory nerve into the cranial cavity.[2]
Paranasal sinuses
The mucosa that lines the nasal cavity extends into its chambers, the paranasal sinuses.[13] The nasal cavity and the paranasal sinuses are referred to as the sinonasal tract or sinonasal region, and its anatomy is recognised as being unique and complex.[30][31] Four paired paranasal sinuses – the frontal sinus, the sphenoid sinus, the ethmoid sinus and the maxillary sinus drain into regions of the nasal cavity. The sinuses are air-filled extensions of the nasal cavity into the cranial bones.[13] The frontal sinuses are located in the frontal bone; the sphenoidal sinuses in the sphenoid bone; the maxillary sinuses in the maxilla; and the ethmoidal sinuses in the ethmoid bone.[2][13]
A narrow opening called a
Nose shape
The shape of the nose varies widely due to differences in the nasal bone shapes and formation of the bridge of the nose. Anthropometric studies have importantly contributed to craniofacial surgery, and the nasal index is a recognised anthropometric index used in nasal surgery.[33]
Paul Topinard developed the nasal index as a method of classifying ethnic groups. The index is based on the ratio of the breadth of the nose to its height.[34] The nasal dimensions are also used to classify nasal morphology into five types: Hyperleptorrhine is a very long, narrow nose with a nasal index of 40 to 55.[35] Leptorrhine describes a long, narrow nose with an index of 55–70.[35] Mesorrhine is a medium nose with an index of 70–85. Platyrrhine is a short, broad nose with an index of 85–99·9. The fifth type is the hyperplatyrrhine having an index of more than 100.[35] Variations in nose size between ethnicities may be attributed to differing evolutionary adaptations to local temperatures and humidity. Other factors such as sexual selection may also account for ethnic differences in nose shape. [36]
Some deformities of the nose are named, such as the pug nose and the saddle nose. The pug nose is characterised by excess tissue from the apex that is out of proportion to the rest of the nose. A low and underdeveloped nasal bridge may also be evident.[37] A saddle nose deformity involving the collapse of the bridge of the nose is mostly associated with trauma to the nose but can be caused by other conditions including leprosy.[38][39]
Werner syndrome, a condition associated with premature aging, causes a "bird-like" appearance due to pinching of the nose.[40]
Down syndrome commonly presents a small nose with a flattened nasal bridge. This can be due to the absence of one or both nasal bones, shortened nasal bones, or nasal bones that have not fused in the midline.[41][42]
Blood supply and drainage
Supply
The blood supply to the nose is provided by branches of the
Branches of the ophthalmic artery – the anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries supply the roof, upper bony septum, and ethmoidal and frontal sinuses. The anterior ethmoidal artery also helps to supply the lower septal cartilage.[3] Another branch is the dorsal nasal artery a terminal branch that supplies the skin of the alae and dorsum.
Branches of the maxillary artery include the greater palatine artery; the sphenopalatine artery and its branches – the posterior lateral nasal arteries and posterior septal nasal branches; the pharyngeal branch; and the infraorbital artery and its branches – the superior anterior and posterior alveolar arteries.
The sphenopalatine artery and the ethmoid arteries supply the outer walls of the nasal cavity. There is additional supply from a branch of the facial artery – the superior labial artery. The sphenopalantine artery is the artery primarily responsible for supplying the nasal mucosa.[3]
The skin of the alae is supplied by the septal and lateral nasal branches of the facial artery.[3] The skin of the outer parts of the alae and the dorsum of the nose are supplied by the dorsal nasal artery a branch of the ophthalmic artery, and the infraorbital branch of the maxillary arteries.[3]
Drainage
Veins of the nose include the angular vein that drains the side of the nose, receiving lateral nasal veins from the alae. The angular vein joins with the superior labial vein. Some small veins from the dorsum of the nose drain to the nasal arch of the frontal vein at the root of the nose.
In the posterior region of the cavity, specifically in the posterior part of the inferior meatus is a venous plexus known as Woodruff's plexus.[43] This plexus is made up of large thin-walled veins with little soft tissue such as muscle or fiber. The mucosa of the plexus is thin with very few structures.[44]
Lymphatic drainage
From different areas of the nose superficial lymphatic vessels run with the veins, and deep lymphatic vessels travel with the arteries.[45] Lymph drains from the anterior half of the nasal cavity, including both the medial and lateral walls,[2] to join that of the external nasal skin to drain into the submandibular lymph nodes.[2][3] The rest of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses all drain to the upper deep cervical lymph nodes, either directly or through the retropharyngeal lymph nodes.[3] The back of the nasal floor probably drains to the parotid lymph nodes.[3]
Nerve supply
The nerve supply to the nose and paranasal sinuses comes from two branches of the trigeminal nerve (CN V): the ophthalmic nerve (CN V1), the maxillary nerve (CN V2), and branches from these.[3][13]
In the nasal cavity, the nasal mucosa is divided in terms of nerve supply into a back lower part (posteroinferior), and a frontal upper part (anterosuperior). The posterior part is supplied by a branch of the maxillary nerve – the nasopalatine nerve, which reaches the septum. Lateral nasal branches of the greater palatine nerve supply the lateral wall. [13]
The frontal upper part is supplied from a branch of the ophthalmic nerve – the nasociliary nerve, and its branches – the anterior and posterior ethmoidal nerves.[13]
Most of the external nose – the dorsum, and the apex are supplied by the infratrochlear nerve, (a branch of the nasociliary nerve).[3][13] The external branch of the anterior ethmoidal nerve also supplies areas of skin between the root and the alae.[13]
The alae of the nose are supplied by nasal branches of CN V2, the infraorbital nerve, and internal nasal branches of infraorbital nerve that supply the septum and the vestibule.[46][13]
The
Movement
The muscles of the nose are supplied by branches of the
Smell
The
Autonomic supply
The nasal mucosa in the nasal cavity is also supplied by the
Development
Development of the nose
In the early development of the embryo, neural crest cells migrate to form the mesenchymal tissue as ectomesenchyme of the pharyngeal arches. By the end of the fourth week, the first pair of pharyngeal arches form five facial prominences or processes - an unpaired frontonasal process, paired mandibular processes and paired maxillary processes.[48][49] The nose is largely formed by the fusion of these five facial prominences. The frontonasal process gives rise to the bridge of the nose. The medial nasal processes provide the crest and the tip of the nose, and the lateral nasal processes form the alae or sides of the nose. The frontonasal process is a proliferation of mesenchyme in front of the brain vesicles,[48] and makes up the upper border of the stomadeum.[49]
During the fifth week, the
In the sixth week, the nasal pits deepen as they penetrate into the underlying mesenchyme.[48] At this time, the medial nasal processes migrate towards each other and fuse forming the primordium of the bridge of the nose and the septum.[49] The migration is helped by the increased growth of the maxillary prominences medially, which compresses the medial nasal processes towards the midline. Their merging takes place at the surface, and also at a deeper level.[48] The merge forms the intermaxillary segment, and this is continuous with the rostral part of the nasal septum. The tips of the maxillary processes also grow and fuse with the intermaxillary process. The intermaxillary process gives rise to the philtrum of the upper lip.[48]
At the end of the sixth week, the nasal pits have deepened further and they fuse to make a large ectodermal nasal sac. This sac will be above and to the back of the intermaxillary process. Leading into the seventh week, the nasal sac floor and posterior wall grow to form a thickened plate-like ectodermal structure called the nasal fin.[49] The nasal fin separates the sac from the oral cavity. Within the fin, vacuoles develop that fuse with the nasal sac. This enlarges the nasal sac and at the same time thins the fin to a membrane - the oronasal membrane that separates the nasal pits from the oral cavity.[49] During the seventh week the oronasal membrane ruptures and disintegrates to form an opening - the single primitive choana. The intermaxillary segment extends posteriorly to form the primary palate, which makes up the floor of the nasal cavity.[49] During the eighth and ninth weeks, a pair of thin extensions form from the medial walls of the maxillary process. These extensions are called the palatine shelves that form the secondary palate.[48][49] The secondary palate will endochondrally ossify to form the hard palate - the end-stage floor of the nasal cavity. During this time, ectoderm and mesoderm of the frontonasal process produce the midline septum. The septum grows down from the roof of the nasal cavity and fuses with the developing palates along the midline. The septum divides the nasal cavity into two nasal passages opening into the pharynx through the definitive choanae.[48][49]
At ten weeks, the cells differentiate into
Normal development is critical because the newborn infant breathes through the nose for the first six weeks, and any nasal blockage will need emergency treatment to clear.[52]
Development of the paranasal sinuses
The four pairs of paranasal sinuses - the maxillary, ethmoid, sphenoid, and frontal, develop from the nasal cavity as invaginations extending into their named bones. Two pairs of sinuses form during prenatal development and two pairs form after birth. The maxillary sinuses are the first to appear during the fetal third month. They slowly expand within the maxillary bones and continue to expand throughout childhood. The maxillary sinuses form as invaginations from the nasal sac. The ethmoid sinuses appear in the fetal fifth month as invaginations of the middle meatus. The ethmoid sinuses do not grow into the ethmoid bone and do not completely develop until puberty.[49]
The sphenoid sinuses are extensions of the ethmoid sinuses into the sphenoid bones. They begin to develop around two years of age, and continue to enlarge during childhood.[13]
The frontal sinuses only develop in the fifth or sixth year of childhood, and continue expanding throughout adolescence. Each frontal sinus is made up of two independent spaces that develop from two different sources; one from the expansion of ethmoid sinuses into frontal bone, and the other develops from invagination. They never coalesce so drain independently.[49]
Function
Respiration
The nose is the first organ of the
The three positioned
Variations in shape of the nose have been hypothesised to possibly be adaptive to regional differences in temperature and humidity, though they may also have been driven by other factors such as sexual selection.[59]
Sense of smell
The nose also plays the major part in the
Speech
Clinical significance
One of the most common medical conditions involving the nose is a nosebleed (epistaxis). Most nosebleeds occur in Kiesselbach's plexus, a vascular plexus in the lower front part of the septum involving the convergence of four arteries. A smaller proportion of nosebleeds that tend to be nontraumatic occur in Woodruff's plexus. Woodruff's plexus is a venous plexus of large thin-walled veins lying in the posterior part of the inferior meatus.[44]
Another common condition is nasal congestion, usually a symptom of infection, particularly sinusitis, or other inflammation of the nasal lining called rhinitis, including allergic rhinitis and nonallergic rhinitis. Chronic nasal obstruction resulting in breathing through the mouth can greatly impair or prevent the nostrils from flaring.[65] One of the causes of snoring is nasal obstruction,[66] and anti-snoring devices such as a nasal strip help to flare the nostrils and keep the airway open.[65] Nasal flaring, is usually seen in children when breathing is difficult.[67] Most conditions of nasal congestion also cause a loss of the sense of smell (anosmia). This may also occur in other conditions, for example following trauma, in Kallmann syndrome or Parkinson's disease. A blocked sinus ostium, an opening from a paranasal sinus, will cause fluid to accumulate in the sinus.
In children, the nose is a common site of
Because of the special nature of the blood supply to the human nose and surrounding area, it is possible for retrograde infections from the nasal area to spread to the brain. For this reason, the area from the corners of the mouth to the bridge of the nose, including the nose and maxilla, is known as the danger triangle of the face.[13]
Infections or other conditions that may result in destruction of, or damage to a part of the nose include rhinophyma,[70] skin cancers particularly basal-cell carcinoma,[71] paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer,[72] granulomatosis with polyangiitis,[38] syphilis,[73] leprosy,[39] recreational use of cocaine,[74] chromium and other toxins.[75] The nose may be stimulated to grow in acromegaly, a condition caused by an excess of growth hormone.[76]
A common anatomic variant is an air-filled cavity within a concha known as a concha bullosa.[77] In rare cases a polyp can form inside a bullosa.[78] Usually a concha bullosa is small and without symptoms but when large can cause obstruction to sinus drainage.[79]
Some drugs can be
Sneezing can transmit infections carried in the expelled droplets. This route is called either airborne transmission or aerosol transmission.[83]
Surgical procedures
Badly positioned alar cartilages lack proper support, and can affect the function of the external nasal valve. This can cause breathing problems particularly during deep inhalation.[84] The surgical procedure to correct breathing problems due to disorders in the nasal structures is called a rhinoplasty, and this is also the procedure used for a cosmetic surgery when it is commonly called a "nose job". For surgical procedures of rhinoplasty, the nose is mapped out into a number of subunits and segments. This uses nine aesthetic nasal subunits and six aesthetic nasal segments. A septoplasty is the specific surgery to correct a nasal septum deviation.
A broken nose can result from trauma. Minor fractures may heal on their own. Surgery known as reduction may be carried out on more severe breaks that cause dislocation.[85]
Several nasal procedures of the nose and paranasal sinuses can be carried out using
Some non-nasal surgeries can also be carried out through the use of an endoscope that is entered through the nose. These endoscopic endonasal surgeries are used to remove tumours from the front of the base of the skull.[87]
Swollen conchae can cause obstruction and nasal congestion, and may be treated surgically by a turbinectomy.[88]
Society and culture
Some people choose to have cosmetic surgery (called a rhinoplasty) to change the appearance of their nose. Nose piercings, such as in the nostril, septum, or bridge, are also common. In certain Asian countries such as China, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Thailand and Bangladesh, rhinoplasties are commonly carried out to create a more developed nose bridge or a "high nose".[89] Similarly, "DIY nose lifts" in the form of re-usable cosmetic items have become popular and are sold in many Asian countries such as China, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Sri Lanka and Thailand.[90][91][92] A high-bridged nose has been a common beauty ideal in many Asian cultures dating back to the beauty ideals of ancient China and India.[93][94]
In New Zealand, nose pressing ("hongi") is a traditional greeting originating among the Māori people.[95] However it is now generally confined to certain traditional celebrations.[96]
The
Nose fetishism (or nasophilia) is the sexual partialism for the nose.[100]
Neanderthals
Miquel Hernández of the Department of Animal Biology at the
See also
- Dried nasal mucus
- turbinatesof the nose
- Nasothek
- Ayurvedic technique of nasal cleansing
- Obligate nasal breathing
- Scottish Gaelic word for nose and the name of some hills in the Scottish Highlands
References
- ^ ISBN 9780071222075.
- ^ ISBN 9788131237274.
- ^ ISBN 9780702052309.
- ISBN 9780702068515.
- ^ Knipe, Henry. "Anterior nasal spine fracture | Radiology Case | Radiopaedia.org". radiopaedia.org. Retrieved 24 October 2018.
- ^ "Glossary: nasal spine (anterior)". ArchaeologyInfo.com. Archived from the original on 2017-03-01. Retrieved 2017-02-28.
- ^ Dory, Miri (March 13, 2014). "Cephalometric analysis", Cephx.
- ISBN 9783137384014.
- ^ "Vomeronasal cartilage".
- ISBN 9781588904416.
- ^ Bell, Daniel J. "Columella | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org". Radiopaedia.
- ^ ISBN 9781550091977. Retrieved 17 March 2019.
- ^ ISBN 9781496347213.
- ISBN 9783319675374. Retrieved 17 March 2019.
- ^ PMID 18347238.
- ^ "Nasion definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary". www.collinsdictionary.com. Retrieved 2019-11-06.
- ^ ISBN 978-0063507296.
- ^ "Effects of sexual dimorphism on facial attractiveness Testosterone". Archived from the original on 2007-11-30. Retrieved 2007-06-18.
- PMID 29632770.
- S2CID 19353809.
- ISBN 978-3-8055-8123-3
- ^ ISBN 9780071222075.
- ISBN 978-0073378251.
- PMID 2741675.
- PMID 28340649.
- PMID 24427685.
- ISSN 2168-6181.
- S2CID 6294780.
- PMID 26830402.
- PMID 24338611.
- ^ PMID 1527330.
- PMID 33071509.
- S2CID 6384770.
- ^ a b c "Anthropometric_evaluation_of_nasal_height_nasal_breadth_and_nasal_index_among_Bini_children_In_Southern_Nigeria". Retrieved 9 April 2020.
- PMID 28301464.
- PMID 2643972.
- ^ S2CID 24357553.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link - ^ PMID 24817241.
- )
- PMID 16615922.
- S2CID 23326973.
- ^ Solomon, Atyam. "Woodruff plexus | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org". Radiopaedia. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
- ^ S2CID 2866097.
- ISBN 9781496347213.
- S2CID 27511642.
- ISBN 9781416062578.
- ^ ISBN 9780781790697.
- ^ ISBN 0443065837.
- ^ Hengerer AS, Oas RE (1987). Congenital Anomalies of the Nose: Their Embryology, Diagnosis, and Management (SIPAC). Alexandria VA: American Academy of Otolaryngology.[page needed]
- ^ "Polyrrhinia (Concept Id: C4274730) - MedGen - NCBI". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.
- ^ Nasal Anatomy at eMedicine
- ^ PMID 15062424.
- PMID 21364219.
- ^ PMID 18652158.
- S2CID 38183174.
- PMID 16525923.
- ^ PMID 6350406.
- ^ Zaidi, Arslan A., Brooke C. Mattern, Peter Claes, Brian McEcoy, Cris Hughes, and Mark D. Shriver. "Investigating the case of human nose shape and climate adaptation." PLoS genetics 13, no. 3 (2017): e1006616.
- ISBN 978-0-7216-9197-8.
- ^ Ohala, John. "The Phonetics of Nasal Phonology:Theorems and Data" (PDF). berkeley.edu. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
- ISBN 9780521456555. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
- ISBN 9780073378251.
- ISBN 9780470646083.
- ^ ISBN 9781496347213.
- ^ ""Snoring Causes". Mayo Clinic. 26 April 2015. Retrieved 15 June 2016.
- ^ "Nasal flaring: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". medlineplus.gov. Retrieved 15 June 2019.
- ^ "Foreign Body, Nose". Archived from the original on 2008-12-20. Retrieved 2008-12-16.
- ^ "Frostbite - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic.
- PMID 24314376.
- ^ "Basal Cell Carcinoma". British Skin Foundation.
- ^ "Paranasal Sinus and Nasal Cavity Cancer Treatment (Adult) (PDQ®)–Patient Version". National Cancer Institute. 8 November 2019.
- PMID 19483520.
- PMID 22940554.
- S2CID 41349877.
- ^ "Acromegaly | NIDDK". National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.
- PMID 22448660.
- PMID 16681852.
- PMID 10502705.
- PMID 11516776.
- S2CID 46813008.
- S2CID 2757858.
- PMID 30704406.
- S2CID 49865947.
- PMID 26770280.
- PMID 28299251.
- PMID 22501020.
- S2CID 13199768.
- ^ "Miss Universe Malaysia pageant contestants 'look too western'". 2018-11-28. Archived from the original on 2016-09-22.
- ^ Strochlic, Nina (6 January 2014). "DIY Plastic Surgery: Can You Change Your Face Without Going Under the Knife?". The Daily Beast.
- ^ "Connecting People Through News". PressReader. Archived from the original on 2017-12-06.
- ^ "Nose Shaper". Shybuy. Archived from the original on 2017-06-05. Retrieved 2017-05-22.
- ISBN 978-0-8122-0101-7. Archivedfrom the original on 2018-05-02.
- ISBN 978-81-208-0638-2. Archivedfrom the original on 2018-05-02.
- ^ Derby, Mark (September 2013). "Ngā mahi tika". Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Archived from the original on 8 September 2017. Retrieved 8 September 2017.
- ^ "Greetings! Hongi Style! – polynesia.com | blog". polynesia.com | blog. 2016-03-24. Archived from the original on 2017-09-18. Retrieved 2017-09-18.
- ISBN 978-0-8047-0525-7.
Visitors to Kyoto used to be shown the Minizuka or Ear Tomb, which contained, it was said, the noses of those 38,000, sliced off, suitably pickled, and sent to Kyoto as evidence of victory.
- ISBN 978-0781734981.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location (link - ^ Mitali Ruths (June 14, 2011). "White Line on Nose in Children". LiveStrong.com. Archived from the original on 2012-06-22. Retrieved 2012-11-25.
- ^ "nasophilia". The Free Dictionary.
- ISBN 978-0-521-82087-5.
- ^ PMID 21183202.
- PMID 9185954.
- This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 992 of the 20th edition of Gray's Anatomy (1918)
Further reading
- Nestor, James (2020). ISBN 978-0735213616.
External links
- Media related to Human noses at Wikimedia Commons
- Quotations related to Noses at Wikiquote