Lewis H. Brereton
Lewis H. Brereton | |
---|---|
Birth name | Lewis Hyde Brereton |
Born | Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S. | June 21, 1890
Died | July 20, 1967 | (aged 77)
Buried | |
Allegiance | United States of America |
Service/ | Coast Artillery Corps, U.S. Army Aeronautical Division, Signal Corps Aviation Section, Signal Corps Air Service, United States Army United States Army Air Corps United States Army Air Forces United States Air Force |
Years of service | 1911–1948 |
Rank | Lieutenant General |
Service number | 0-3132 |
Commands held | Third Air Force First Allied Airborne Army Ninth Air Force Tenth Air Force Far East Air Force |
Battles/wars | World War I World War II |
Awards | Distinguished Service Cross (2) Army Distinguished Service Medal (2) Silver Star Legion of Merit (2) Distinguished Flying Cross Bronze Star Purple Heart Air Medal |
Lewis Hyde Brereton (June 21, 1890 – July 20, 1967) was a military aviation pioneer and lieutenant general in the United States Air Force. A 1911 graduate of the United States Naval Academy, he began his military career as a United States Army officer in the United States Army Coast Artillery Corps prior to World War I, then spent the remainder of his service as a career aviator.
Brereton was one of the few senior U.S. commanders in World War II who served in combat theaters continuously from the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor to the German surrender, and he saw action in more theaters than any other senior officer. He began World War II as a major general commanding the Far East Air Force in the Philippines and concluded it as a lieutenant general in command of the First Allied Airborne Army in Germany. Brereton commanded forces in four controversial events of the war: the destruction on the ground of much of the United States Army Air Forces in the Philippines, Operation Tidal Wave; Operation Cobra; and Operation Market Garden.[1][nb 1]
Brereton was one of the first military pilots of the United States Army, assigned to the
Early life and career
Family and personality
Brereton was born in Pittsburgh, in 1890, the second son of William Denny Brereton and Helen (Hyde) Brereton. The family moved to Annapolis, Maryland while Brereton's older brother, William Jr., was a midshipman at the Naval Academy. His father was a successful mining engineer and a 4th-generation Irish-American. His mother was English and Episcopalian by birth.[2] At the age of eight, Brereton suffered a recurring infection of the middle ear, purulent otitis media, which proved impossible to treat in the pre-antibiotics era.[1]
His personality characteristics were said to be "cool and thoughtful", able to "think rapidly on his feet", with a "quick, analytical mind". However, he was also said to have an "appropriate temper" and "able to swear in three or four languages", a "party-loving streak", and when referring to himself, to use the
Aviation training
He attended
In September 1912, he volunteered for detached service with the Signal Corps' Aeronautical Division to undertake flying training at the planned aviation school at
In July 1916, he was promoted to
Air Service in World War I
After
Brereton left the 12th Aero Squadron on July 1, was promoted to major on July 2 and three days later became Air Service Officer to the I Corps. When the U.S. 2nd Division attacked Chateau-Thierry in mid-July, Brereton flew the first artillery adjustment mission near Vaux with his old command. Chateau-Thierry brought him to the attention of Brig. Gen. Billy Mitchell, who assigned him command of the Corps Observation Wing on August 28, supervising the observation groups of three corps, one army, and a French group,[1] in preparation for the St-Mihiel Offensive.[14] On September 12, 1918, while flying a troops-in-contact observation mission on the first day of the offensive, Brereton became involved in an air-to-air combat over Thiaucourt that earned him the Distinguished Service Cross[15]
Mitchell, now the Chief of Air Service, Group of Armies and de facto commander of all U.S. air combat units, made Brereton his assistant for operations on October 26. Brereton was promoted to temporary lieutenant colonel on November 1. Less than 3 weeks before the end of the war, he proposed a plan to drop members of the 1st Division on the German-occupied city of Metz, in what would have been the first parachute airborne assault. While Mitchell supported the plan, General John J. Pershing, commander of the AEF, shelved it.[16]
After the armistice, he was appointed
Inter-war service
Upon his return to the United States in early 1919, he was assigned to the
Brereton became commanding officer of the 10th School Group on September 1, 1922 at
Personal difficulties
On June 4, 1925, Brereton was named commanding officer of the
During 1927, Brereton experienced a stressful amount of friction with superiors over his membership on technical boards, which required an inordinate amount of time from his command duties at 2nd BG. His 14-year marriage, never strong, was disintegrating and he developed a negative reputation for drinking. On April 7, the
In August 1927, after private treatment for his emotional problems, Brereton was restored to flying status by a flight surgeon, found not to be an
Restoration of reputation
Between July 7, 1931 and June 20, 1935, Brereton served in the
Following his duty in Panama, Brereton returned to Fort Leavenworth for a four-year tour as the Chief of the Air Corps Subsection at the Command and General Staff School, for which he received temporary promotion to colonel. Brereton had only a few hours of instruction duty during each year's course, where the curriculum had not changed since 1926 and still emphasized horse cavalry.
Brereton then began six and one-half years of successive command assignments, including seven tours as a commanding general. He took command of
After being briefed on October 15 regarding his new responsibilities by Arnold, his staff, and General
He had been in the Philippines less than two weeks when MacArthur sent him to Australia "for twelve precious days"
World War II
Far East
Shortly after word of the attack on Pearl Harbor reached the Philippines on December 8, 1941, Brereton urged immediate air attacks against Japanese bases on Formosa in accordance with the Rainbow 5 war plan and Brereton's own aggressive nature.[21] However, Brereton was twice thwarted from seeing General Douglas MacArthur about bombing Formosa by MacArthur's chief of staff Richard K. Sutherland; Brereton sent his bombers and P-40 pursuit planes aloft to prevent them from being destroyed by air attack. Hours later, MacArthur initially denied permission for the attack, but then reversed himself minutes afterwards. Brereton ordered his bombers to return to base to prepare for the mission, and by then all fighters aloft had become short on fuel. While they were being fueled and armed for the afternoon mission, the bombers and many of the pursuit planes were caught on the ground when Japanese air units, whose takeoff from Formosa had been delayed for six hours by fog, attacked shortly after noon. Consequently, FEAF was largely destroyed on the first day of the war.[25][26][nb 19]
Multiple Japanese landings on Luzon between December 10 and December 23 forced the defenders to withdraw into
In early 1942, Brereton was named Deputy Air Commander, under
On March 5, 1942, now in New Delhi, Brereton took command of and began to organize the new Tenth Air Force. In addition to setting up the new air force, Brereton was also ordered to prepare an air route for the resupply of China. On the night of April 2–3, 1942, he participated in the first bombing mission of the Tenth Air Force—conducted by an LB-30 and two B-17s, of which he co-piloted one of the latter—in an attack against Japanese warships at Port Blair in the Andaman Islands in support of the British, for which he was decorated with the Distinguished Flying Cross.[21][nb 21]
In June 1942, in response to the German threat to the Suez Canal in North Africa, he was transferred to Cairo with the best bomber aircraft and crews then in India.
Middle East
In June 1942, Brereton was appointed commander of
His small air force was reinforced by the
The heavy bombers used the campaign as a proving ground for tactics, particularly pattern bombing against maneuvering ships.
Among the missions undertaken in 1943 by the heavy bomber units under Brereton's command was the minimum-altitude bombing of oil refineries at
In August 1943, Operation Tidal Wave took place under Brereton's command. Plans for the low-level bombing raid on the Ploesti oil refineries in Rumania originated in the Air Staff, but Brereton determined that the attack would originate from Libyan rather than Syrian bases, trained the bomber force, and ably defended the controversial low-level concept.[21]
Ninth Air Force
In January 1943, the "Combined Bomber Offensive" plan was approved by the Combined Chiefs of Staff, calling for a force of 2,700 heavy bombers and 800 medium bombers based in England to attack German targets on the continent around the clock. In April, Maj. Gen. Ira C. Eaker, commanding the Eighth Air Force, submitted a plan to the USAAF requesting creation of a new tactical air force within the Eighth AF of 25 medium and light bomb groups to carry out the medium bomber portion of the CBO plan. His proposal was investigated and endorsed by a committee from Headquarters USAAF under Brig. Gen. Follett Bradley. At the same time but unrelated to the CBO, Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower proposed a consolidation of the Ninth and Twelfth Air Forces in the Mediterranean Theater, and suggested that Brereton be reassigned to become deputy commander of the Allied tactical air force commanded by Coningham.[40]
Gen. Arnold instead offered Brereton a choice of assignments on July 31: a command in the United States, a position of responsibility in the Cairo headquarters of the new combined air force, or command of the new tactical air force being formed as part of Eighth Air Force. Brereton "with utmost eagerness" chose the new command in England.[41]
The
The Ninth Air Force was organized into three combat commands that employed all tactical functions of combat airpower: bomber, fighter and troop carrier.
From the start Brereton benefited from a strong command team for his diverse tactical commands. Brig. Gen.
During the winter of 1943–44 Ninth Air Force grew at an extraordinary rate. In the first six months under Brereton's command, October 16, 1943 to April 16, 1944, the Ninth Air Force expanded from 2,162 to 163,312 men.
Operation Overlord
Brereton was promoted to lieutenant general in April 1944 as his units began a campaign of planned attacks against airfields (April 1), railway centers and rolling stock (April 1), coastal batteries (April 13), and bridges (May 7) in France preparatory to Operation Overlord, the invasion of Normandy by the Western Allies on June 6, 1944.[48] When Leigh-Mallory proposed that an "Allied Tactical Air Force" be created to command both tactical air forces after D-Day, and that Coningham command it in addition to 2TAF, Brereton objected on the basis that the Ninth would be made subordinate to its RAF counterpart. Instead Coningham was assigned to command a temporary Advanced Headquarters of AEAF on the continent active during the initial phase of the campaign, where he and Brereton made a formidable command team for tactical air operations during the buildup of the Allied bridgehead.[49]
The
Seven fighter groups moved to the continent shortly after the invasion, and by August all of the Ninth's fighter groups were operational in beachhead. Brereton had learned from Coningham and the Western Desert Air Force, and made a slogan of the Ninth that all units must "Keep Mobile".[52]
Operation Cobra
In mid-July 1944, the
Poor weather delayed the attack until July 24, and a request for postponement another 24 hours was denied. After the aircraft began taking off, Leigh-Mallory vacillated before recalling the mission, and while some fighter-bombers completed their missions, the medium bombers did not take off from their English bases. The heavy bombers, however, were already in the air and did not receive the recall. Finding a severe ground haze over the target, most returned to base as instructed in their field orders, but others attacked, resulting in the bombing of American troops.[53] Brereton and Quesada were near the front with Bradley to observe the results, and were nearly killed by errant bombs.[54]
The next day, July 25, Operation Cobra was finally launched as planned with a "maximum effort" by the air forces that included 559 sorties by fighter-bombers and 480 by medium and light bombers of the Ninth Air Force.[55] Fighter-bomber attacks of the immediate front lines by eight groups of IX TAC, to a depth of 250 yards (230 m), were generally excellent, but as air planners had predicted, created smoke and dust that obscured aiming points for the bombers at higher altitudes. The second day of heavy bomber attacks also resulted in further accidental bombings of American troops, particularly the 47th Infantry of the 9th Infantry Division[56] and the 120th Infantry of the 30th Infantry Division. The latter was also attacked by B-26 bombers of the Ninth that dropped their bombs short of the German lines.[57][nb 31] In both days of bombing, approximately 3% of bombs fell within American lines,[56] resulting in 111 killed and 490 wounded.[nb 32] Although not apparent at first, the air attacks succeeded in their objective of disrupting German formations and destroying their communications, facilitating the break-through.[53][58]
Brereton was awarded the Legion of Merit for his performance in commanding the Ninth AF during 1944.[15]
First Allied Airborne Army
In July Gen. Eisenhower decided to implement tentative plans for a unified command of all British and American
Operation Market-Garden
After alerts and cancellations of several airborne drops to cut off retreating German forces, Eisenhower on September 10 approved Montgomery's three-division airborne assault in the
Brereton, however, made key changes to the Linnet plan, first in restricting glider missions to "single-tows", that is, one tug aircraft towing one glider, whereas Linnet had contemplated a double-tow mission. A combination of poor weather, extensive resupply missions to the pursuing Allied armies, and anticipation of last-minute airborne drops cancelled virtually all training for IX TCC in August, as a consequence of which Brereton believed that untried and unpracticed double-tows were too hazardous. Brereton also decided that the operation, protected by massive air support from the RAF and the AAF, would take place in daylight, to avoid the dispersion experienced during both the British and American airborne landings in Normandy in June. His decision was finalized when weather and other delays pushed back D-Day for the operation to September 17, which was the dark moon. Finally, the shorter hours of daylight in September caused Brereton to refuse authorization for two lifts per day, and as a result of the limited number of troop carrier aircraft, the air movement of the Army required three consecutive days to complete.[63]
Weather intelligence had indicated four consecutive days of clear weather, but after the first day, operations were delayed or postponed because of fog, low clouds, haze, and other conditions of poor visibility over the bases in England, the planned routes to the Netherlands, and the drop/landing zones.[64] Airborne operations on the first two days had been successful to an unexpected degree, but nevertheless the overall operation had begun to fall seriously behind schedule,[65] and only grew worse as the weather deteriorated. The cancellation of a reinforcement lift of an American glider infantry regiment and a Polish paratrooper brigade on September 19 proved crucial to failure of the operation.[66]
Operation Varsity
On October 17, 1944, after the completion of Market Garden, the staff of the First Allied Airborne Army learned that Gen. Bradley hoped to cross the Rhine River at Wesel, Germany, and on November 7 completed a study for an airborne operation by two divisions, Operation Varsity, to support the endeavor. A number of factors delayed the target date to January 1, 1945, and the Battle of the Bulge further disrupted the schedule. After the Allied counter-offensive in January, Eisenhower planned an assault over the Rhine in the same area, and Operation Varsity was revisited on February 10 with few changes in the outline plan. Its objective was to seize the low wooded heights overlooking the Rhine to prevent German artillery from disrupting bridging operations.[67]
The Anglo-Canadian
In late February Montgomery set the date for Plunder/Varsity as March 24, which SHAEF approved on March 8.[70][nb 33] On the afternoon of March 23, Brereton and Coningham, commanding all the cooperating air forces, made the final decision to launch Varsity when weather officers predicted clear weather the next day.[71] Although the Germans had anticipated the assault and prepared positions for 10,000 defending troops, the unprecedented size of the airborne operation overwhelmed the defense. Using 300 double-tow glider sorties, a troop carrier group of 72 Curtiss C-46 Commandos, and three parallel ingress lanes, nearly 17,000 troops were concentrated in the objective area in less than four hours, using 540 planeloads of paratroopers and 1,348 gliders.[72]
Post-war career and legacy
After serving continuously overseas in combat theaters since before the attack on Pearl Harbor, Brereton returned to the United States in May 1945 for assignment to Headquarters AAF at Washington, and in July was again given command of the Third Air Force. In January 1946, he was named commanding general of the
He divorced in February 1946 and married a third time.
Dr. Miller reviewed both laudatory and condemnatory histories of Brereton and summarized his contribution to World War II:
As in the case of colorful figures ... little room seems to exist for neutral opinions about Brereton's reputation. Second, earlier historians generally have had a more favorable view of his performance; more recent historians have given him less credit for ability. Third, and closely related to the previous point, historians who have tended to give Brereton higher marks for competence, especially concerning the events in the Philippines, have largely been those ... who have written extensively on the history of air power. Fourth, an individual's view about Brereton's actions in the Philippines are generally the reverse of his view of Gen. of the Army Douglas MacArthur. Pro-MacArthur historians tend to condemn Brereton; anti-MacArthur historians are generally pro-Brereton. Many of the most serious assaults on Brereton's reputation have thus originated from those who have risen to MacArthur's defense.
and:
The evidence examined for this article suggests that Lewis Brereton was a capable commander and effective leader, but not a great general. He was a solid product of the U.S. military system prior to World War II, and as such was neither a star performer nor mediocre failure. He fits into that large middle ground of competent but unspectacular American officers who brought victory in World War II. Brereton had important strengths. In both world wars, he proved himself a brave, aggressive, and candid officer. Gen. Carl Spaatz (in his last Officer Efficiency Report on Brereton in 1946) justly described him as "personally fearless, forthright and given to firm and direct expression of his opinions regardless of the consequences to himself."[21]
Awards and decorations
SOURCE: Biographical Data on Air Force General Officers, 1917–1952, Volume 1 – A thru L[6]
Distinguished Service Cross (with oak leaf cluster[15])* | |
Distinguished Service Medal (with oak leaf cluster) | |
Silver Star | |
Legion of Merit (with oak leaf cluster) | |
Distinguished Flying Cross | |
Bronze Star Medal | |
Purple Heart* | |
Air Medal | |
World War I Victory Medal* (with six battle stars)[1] | |
American Defense Service Medal | |
American Campaign Medal | |
Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal (with three campaign stars)
| |
European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal (with seven campaign stars)
|
Grand Officer, Order of Orange-Nassau, with crossed swords (Netherlands)
Grand Officer, Order of Albert (Belgium)*[clarification needed]
Commander, Order of Prince Danilo I (Montenegro)*
Companion, Order of the Bath (CB) (Great Britain)
*Decorations received for service in World War I. The officier of the Legion of Honor and one of the DSCs were awarded for World War I. The Purple Heart was awarded in 1932 after Brereton petitioned the Adjutant General to have it replace the Meritorious Service Citation Certificate he was awarded in 1918.[1]
Distinguished Service Cross citation
General Orders: War Department, General Orders No. 15 (1919)
Action Date: 12 September 1918
Service: Army Air Service
Rank: Major
Unit: Corps Observation Wing, American Expeditionary Forces
Citation: The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Distinguished Service Cross to Major (Air Service) Lewis Hyde Brereton (ASN: 0–3132), for extraordinary heroism in action while serving with Corps Observation Wing, Air Service, A.E.F., over Thiaucourt, France, 12 September 1918. Major Brereton, together with an observer, voluntarily and pursuant to a request for special mission, left his airdrome, crossed the enemy lines over Lironville, and proceeded to Thiaucourt. In spite of poor visibility, which forced them to fly at a very low altitude, and in spite of intense and accurate anti-aircraft fire they maintained their flight along their course and obtained valuable information. Over Thiaucourt they were suddenly attacked by four enemy monoplane Fokkers. Maneuvering his machine so that his observer could obtain a good field of fire, he entered into combat. His observer's guns becoming jammed, he withdrew until the jam was cleared, when he returned to the combat. His observer then becoming wounded, he coolly made a landing within friendly lines, although followed down by the enemy to within 25 meters of the ground. By this act he made himself an inspiration and example to all the members of his command.[15]
Dates of rank
Insignia | Rank | Component | Date |
---|---|---|---|
No insignia in 1911 | Ensign | United States Navy | March 1911 |
No insignia in 1911 | Second Lieutenant |
Coast Artillery Corps |
August 17, 1911 |
First Lieutenant |
Coast Artillery Corps | July 11, 1916 | |
First Lieutenant |
Field Artillery |
January 13, 1917 | |
Captain |
Field Artillery | May 15, 1917 | |
Captain |
Signal Corps |
June 27, 1917 | |
Major | Temporary | July 2, 1918 | |
Lieutenant Colonel | Army Air Service |
November 1, 1918 | |
Major | Air Service | July 1, 1920 | |
Major | Army Air Corps | July 2, 1926 | |
Lieutenant Colonel | Army Air Corps | March 4, 1935 | |
Colonel | Temporary | August 26, 1936 | |
Colonel | Army Air Corps | August 1, 1940 | |
Brigadier General | Army of the United States | October 1, 1940 | |
Major General | Army of the United States | July 11, 1941 | |
Colonel | Army Air Forces |
March 9, 1942 | |
Lieutenant General | Army of the United States | April 28, 1944 | |
Brigadier General | Army Air Forces | June 2, 1946 | |
Lieutenant General | United States Air Force | September 18, 1947 | |
Lieutenant General | United States Air Force (Retired) | September 1, 1948 |
Notes
Footnotes
- ^ Dr. Miller was a USAF historian. The title of his history of Brereton was part of a larger characterization of Brereton by a former subordinate, Major General Cecil F. Combs: "a cocky, aggressive, intelligent, experienced, pretty damn able commander."
- ^ D'Este also asserts that Brereton was a "protected protégé" of Arnold's, but despite four decades as peers in the army, they in fact had no personal history and never served together in any capacity.
- ^ "Mary" Coningham was frequently criticized for similar off-duty living habits throughout the war, like Brereton primarily by his detractors in the ground forces, which included Bradley. (Orange, pp. 144-145, 163, 221)
- ^ Brereton had to complete the required Aero Club of America's certification test twice because the first was not presented in the proper order to the ACA Secretary's satisfaction.
- ^ 1Lt. Rex Chandler, a student, was killed in the crash of Signal Corps No. 15 when he was knocked unconscious and drowned.
- revolution in Chinaat the same time.
- ^ The 17th Field Artillery had been constituted in July 1916 but was not yet organized, thereby providing a vacancy for Brereton to fill. The move allowed Brereton to be placed on the Detached Service List without waiting for a vacancy to open by removal from it of another Coast Artillery officer in the same grade.
- ^ The law creating the Aviation Section in 1914 included a provision requiring three years' service as a JMA before being eligible for a Military Aviator rating, and all those previously awarded the rating were re-rated as JMAs. Following the war, Brereton received his MA rating back for "distinguished service." (Davis, p. 678, note 50)
- ^ Miller (Part I) states that Brereton while on an inspection trip found the 12th Aero Squadron performing labor duties at the Amanty training center. Its commander expressed a preference for bombardment duty to Brereton, who arranged a transfer so that he himself could take command.
- ^ The "AR" stood for Avion Renault, but American pilots quipped that it stood for "antique rattletrap".
- Carl A. Spaatz, Major Melvin A. Hall, and Captain Reed M. Chambers) the rating of "Military Aviator" for "distinguished service" in France during the war, the only six awarded for service. When the Military Aviator rating was abolished in 1920, these six were permitted to keep it. (Davis, p. 678, note 50.)
- Organized Reserve unit allocated to the Air Service Tactical School, and its 54th School Squadron. (Clay 2010, pp. 1308. 1415)
- ^ Per Miller, Part II, Brereton's New York Times obituary stated that the divorce was not final until 1929.
- ^ Gen. Brown commanded the 2nd Division at Chateau-Thierry and had thought well of Brereton's command capabilities.
- ^ In this assignment, Brereton was also Aviation Officer to the inactive 5th Division from August 15, 1928, to February 15, 1929, when all divisional aviation services were demobilized throughout the Army. (Clay 2010, p. 1271)
- Jacob Fickel, a long-time friend of Arnold's, and Walter H. Frank. Fickel commanded the Fourth Air Force, while Frank headed Third Air Force's Interceptor Command (and became Third Air Force commander as soon as Brereton left for Washington). The general replaced was Henry B. Clagett, who had been sent to the Philippines in May specifically to prepare its air defenses for war. Clagett was both aware that war was near and hard-working, but, as Edmunds (p. 19) put it, "lacked the necessary elasticity of mind and body for realistic preparation for total war." Brereton was the youngest of this group of generals by at least four years. MacArthur remembered Brereton from World War I, when he had been chief of staff of the 42nd Divisionat the time Brereton's 12th Aero Squadron had supported it.
- ^ One of the delays was on Wake Island on October 31, where he observed the B-17s of the 19th Bomb Group land on their way to reinforce his new command. Traveling different routes, both arrived on Luzon on the same afternoon. (Edmunds1951, p. 8)
- ^ "Cleaned house" is the phrase used by Miller (Part II).
- ^ Brereton claimed that MacArthur approved the attack. Neither Arnold, notoriously impatient and quick to fire commanders, nor MacArthur attributed any blame to Brereton during the war. MacArthur remained mute on the matter until after the war, when he denied any knowledge of a request for an attack, after publication of the Brereton Diaries.
- ^ Except for the last two days of the Java campaign, the small combat force of ABDAIR was entirely American. Edmunds notes: "Seldom in the history of war have so few been commanded by so many." (Edmunds 1951, p. 272)
- ^ Brereton may have flown as co-pilot because of a "pronounced loss of stereo-optic vision" diagnosed in 1937, per Miller, Part I.
- ^ The 1st Provisional Group became the 376th Bomb Group on October 31 and its B-17s were sent to the Twelfth Air Force.
- ^ On October 12, these were organized into Bomber Command, USAMEAF, consisting of 61 heavy bombers that included the Liberators of No. 160 Squadron RAF.
- 98th Bombardment Wing. The 44th Bomb Wing, still forming, was redesignated the 99th Bombardment Wing and also assigned to IX BC. A third wing, the 97th Bombardment Wing, was activated at the same time, but its light bomber groups were not assigned until the spring of 1944.
- ^ IX TCC's first commander was Brig. Gen. Benjamin F. Giles.
- US Ninth Armyin its thrust into Germany. Ninth Air Force also had a sixth tactical command, IX Air Defense Command under Brig. Gen. William L. Richardson, created in July 1944 to defend 9AF airfields.
- ^ IX BC was renamed 9th Bombardment Division on August 30, 1944.
- ^ IX Engineer Command, under Brig Gen. James B. Newman, was a highly mobile force of 16 engineer aviation battalions in four regiments for constructing air landing grounds.
- ^ IX ADC had a fighter wing and several night fighter squadrons for interception of attacking aircraft, but it primarily consisted of mobile antiaircraft and air warning battalions attached from the Army Ground Forces.
- ^ Personnel totals included 23,000 in bomber command; 36,000 in fighter command; 30,000 in troop carrier command; 62,000 in IX Air Force Service Command; 23,000 in engineer command, and 43,000 in air defense command. (Craven and Cate III pp. 111-118; Kohn and Harahan pp. 66-84)
- ^ Lt. Col. George gave the number as 42, but that was the total of all bombers mis-dropping on July 25. Richard Hallion, Chief Historian of the Air Force, set the figure at five in his 1994 monograph added to Army Air Forces in World War II.
- ^ The total does not include four airmen killed and 18 wounded on July 24 when one B-24 dropped its bombs on the 404th Fighter Group at landing ground A-5. (Carafano)
- ^ The date was advanced from March 31.
Citations
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Miller 2000, p. 4
- ^ a b c d Boothe (Luce) 1942, pp. 66–76
- ^ D'Este 2002, p. 610
- ^ Orange 1992, pp. 102, 104
- ^ Orange 1992, p. 202
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Fogerty 1953, entry "Brereton, Lewis Hyde"
- ^ Hennessy 1958, p. 60
- ^ Hennessy 1958, p. 229, see Appendix 10
- ^ Hennessy 1958, p. 80
- ^ Register of the Army of the United States, 1921, Adjutant General's Office, p. 1088
- ^ Simpson 1970, p. 43
- ^ Maurer 1978, p. 171
- ^ Maurer 1978, p. 186
- ^ a b "Lieutenant General Lewis Hyde Brereton". Inside AF.mil. Retrieved 5 April 2016.
- ^ a b c d e "Lewis Hyde Brereton". Military Times Hall of Valor. Retrieved 22 November 2010. Citations/notations for both DSCs, both DSMs, SS, and LM are listed here.
- ^ "Amazing Parachute Facts and Stories", 173rd Airborne.com.
- ^ Clay 2010, p. 1303
- ^ Maurer 1961, p. 31
- ^ Miller 2001, p. 4
- ^ Clay 2010, p. 1309
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Miller 2001, p. 22
- ^ Bartsch 2003, pp. 153–155, 173–175
- ^ Edmunds 1951, p. 77
- ^ Gillison 1962, pp. 184ff
- ^ a b Morton 1953, pp. 88–89
- ^ Correll 2007, pp. 66–68
- ^ Edmunds 1951, pp. 196–197
- ^ Edmunds 1951, p. 256
- ^ Edmunds 1951, pp. 270–271
- ^ Edmunds 1951, pp. 342–343
- ^ Edmunds 1951, p. 369
- ^ a b Coles 1945, p. 42
- ^ Mayock 1949, p. 20
- ^ Mayock 1949, p. 28
- ^ Coles 1945, p. 47
- ^ Coles 1945, p. 79
- ^ Coles 1945, p. 77
- ^ Coles 1945, p. 83
- ^ Simpson 1949, pp. 477–483
- ^ Ramsey 1945, pp. 10–15
- ^ Ramsey 1945, p. 13
- ^ Ramsey 1945, pp. 25–26
- ^ Ramsey 1945, p. 16
- ^ a b Ramsey 1945, pp. 27–28
- ^ a b c Craven & Cate 1951, pp. 111–118
- ^ Ramsey 1945, p. 168
- ^ Ramsey 1945, p. 208
- ^ George 1945, pp. 32–46
- ^ Orange 1992, pp. 187–189
- ^ Warren 1956, pp. 58, 72
- ^ Warren 1956, p. 80
- ^ George 1945, p. 161
- ^ a b c Sullivan 1988, pp. 97–110
- ^ Hughes 1995, pp. 205–206
- ^ George 1945, p. 124
- ^ a b Carafano, "The Ethics of Operation Cobra and the Normandy Breakout"
- ^ George 1945, p. 125
- ^ George 1945, pp. 126–127
- ^ Huston 1998, pp. 78–79
- ^ Huston 1998, p. 80
- ^ Warren 1956, pp. 81–83
- ^ Warren 1956, p. 89
- ^ Warren 1956, pp. 89–90, 150
- ^ Warren 1956, p. 118
- ^ Warren 1956, p. 115 and 127
- ^ Warren 1956, p. 133
- ^ Warren 1956, p. 156
- ^ Warren 1956, p. 157
- ^ Warren 1956, p. 159
- ^ Warren 1956, p. 160
- ^ Warren 1956, p. 173
- ^ Warren 1956, pp. 192–193
- ^ Col. Phillip Meilinger, USAF, "Lewis Hyde Brereton", American Airpower Biography: A Survey of the Field
- ^ Official Register of Commissioned Officers of the United States Army, 1948. pg. 201.
References
- Bartsch, William H. (2003). December 8, 1941: MacArthur's Pearl Harbor. (Texas A&M University Press). ISBN 1-58544-246-1.
- Boothe (Luce), Clare (June 1, 1942). "Close Up: Brereton". Life Magazine. Vol. 12, no. 22. pp. 66–76.
- Brereton, Lewis H. (1946). The Brereton Diaries: The War in the Air in the Pacific, Middle East and Europe, 3 October 1941 – 8 May 1945 (New York: William Morrow & Co.)
- Carafano, LTC James J. (2000). "The Ethics of Operation Cobra and the Normandy Breakout". Texas A&M University. Retrieved 1 December 2010. Paper presented to the 2000 Joint Services Conference On Professional Ethics
- Clay, Lt. Col. Steven E. (2010). US Army Order of Battle 1919–1941 Vol. 3: The Services: Air Service, Engineers, and Special Troops Organizations (PDF). (Combat Studies Institute Press). ISBN 978-0-9841901-4-0. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2011-08-13. Retrieved 2011-09-20.
- Correll, John T. (2007). "Caught on the Ground" (PDF). AIR FORCE Magazine. Vol. 90, no. December. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
- Craven, Wesley Frank; Cate, James Lea, eds. (1948). The Army Air Forces In World War II (PDF). Vol. One – Plans and Early Operations: January 1939 – August 1942. Air Force Historical Studies Office. ISBN 0-912799-03-X. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2016-10-18. Retrieved 2016-08-19.
- Craven, Wesley Frank; Cate, James Lea, eds. (1951). The Army Air Forces In World War II (PDF). Vol. Three – Europe: Argument to V-E Day: January 1944 – May 1945. Air Force Historical Studies Office. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-11-23. Retrieved 2016-08-19.
- Davis, Richard G. (1993). Carl A. Spaatz and the air war in Europe. Washington, D.C.: Center for Air Force History. ISBN 0-912799-75-7. Retrieved 12 January 2014.
- D'Este, Carlo (2002). Eisenhower: A Soldier's Life. (Henry Holt and Company, LLC). ISBN 0-8050-5687-4.
- Edmunds, Walter D. (1951). They Fought With What They Had. DIANE. ISBN 9781428915411. Retrieved 2011-01-28.
- Gillison, Douglas N. (1962). Volume I – Royal Australian Air Force, 1939–1942. Australian War Memorial. )
- Hughes, Dr. Thomas A. (1995). Overlord:General Pete Quesada and the Triumph of Tactical Air Power in World War II. (The Free Press). ISBN 0-7432-4783-3.
- Huston, James A. (1998). Out Of The Blue – U.S Army Airborne Operations In World War II. (Purdue University Press). ISBN 1-55753-148-X.
- Maurer, Maurer (1978). Volume I: The Final Report of the Chief of Air Service AEF and a Tactical History (PDF). Air Force Historical Studies Office. )
- Maurer, Maurer (1961). Air Force Combat Units of World War II (PDF). (Air Force Historical Studies Office). ISBN 0-912799-02-1. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
- Mayock, Thomas J. (1949). Vol.II Europe: TORCH to POINTBLANK, August 1942 to December 1942 – The North African Campaigns (PDF). Air Force Historical Studies Office. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - Miller, Roger G. (Dec 2000). "A 'Pretty Damn Able Commander': Lewis Hyde Brereton, Part I". Air Power History. 47 (4). Retrieved 10 November 2013.
- Miller, Roger G. (Mar 2001). "A 'Pretty Damn Able Commander': Lewis Hyde Brereton, Part II". Air Power History. 48 (1). Retrieved 10 November 2013.
- Miller, Roger G. (Sep 2002). "Four 'Caterpillars' and a funeral documents on the crash of the Huff-Daland XLB-5". Air Power History. 49 (3). Retrieved 10 November 2013.
- Morton, Louis (1953). Chapter V. The First Days of War. US Army Center for Military History.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) CMH Pub 5-2 - Orange, Vincent (1992). Coningham: A Biography of Air Marshal Sir Arthur Coningham, KCB, CBE, DSO, MC, DFC, AFC (PDF). Air Force Historical Research Agency (USAF). ISBN 0-413-14580-8. Archived from the original(PDF) on 10 January 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2013. Original publisher London: Methuen, 1990
- Simpson, Alfred F. (1949). Vol.II Europe: TORCH to POINTBLANK, August 1942 to December 1942 – Sicily and Southern Italy (PDF). Air Force Historical Studies Office. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - Sullivan, John J. (1988). "The Botched Air Support of Operation Cobra" (PDF). Parameters, the US Army's Senior Professional Journal. 18 (March): 97–110. Retrieved 28 November 2010.
USAF Historical Studies
- No. 30: Coles, Harry C. (1945). "Ninth Air Force in the Western Desert Campaign" (PDF). AFHRA (USAF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 December 2010. Retrieved 26 November 2010.
- No. 32: Ramsey, John F. (1945). "Ninth Air Force in the European Theater of Operations, 16 October 1943 to 16 April 1944" (PDF). AFHRA (USAF). Retrieved 26 November 2010.
- No. 36: George, Lt. Col. Robert H. (1945). "Ninth Air Force, April to November 1944" (PDF). AFHRA (USAF). Retrieved 26 November 2010.
- No. 91: Fogerty, Robert P. (1953). "Biographical Data on Air Force General Officers, 1917–1952, Volume 1 – A thru L" (PDF). AFHRA (USAF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 June 2012. Retrieved 11 August 2011.
- No. 97: Warren, Dr. John C. (1956). "Airborne Operations in World War II, European Theater" (PDF). USAF Historical Division Research Studies Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 June 2016. Retrieved 11 August 2011.
- No. 98: Hennessy, Dr. Juliette A. (1958). The United States Army Air Arm, April 1861 to April 1917. AFHRA (USAF). OCLC 12553968. Retrieved 4 December 2010.
- No. 141: Simpson, Alfred F., ed. (1970). "The World War I Diary of Colonel Frank P. Lahm, Air Service, AEF" (PDF). AFHRA (USAF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 September 2012. Retrieved 6 December 2010.
- Kohn, Richard H. and Harahan, Joseph P. (1946, 1984). Condensed Analysis of the Ninth Air Force in the European Theater of Operations, Office of Air Force History. ISBN 0-912799-13-7
External links
- Works by or about Lewis H. Brereton at Internet Archive
- Lieutenant General Lewis Hyde Brereton, Official Biography at Inside AF.mil
- "A 'Pretty Damn Able Commander': Lewis Hyde Brereton, Part I", Roger G. Miller, Winter 2000 Air Power History
- "A 'Pretty Damn Able Commander': Lewis Hyde Brereton, Part II", Roger G. Miller, Spring 2001 Air Power History
- Papers of Lewis H. Brereton, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
- Arlington National Cemetery on Lewis Brereton
- Generals of World War II