Liberal welfare reforms
The Liberal welfare reforms (1906–1914) were a series of acts of social legislation passed by the Liberal Party after the 1906 general election. They represent the emergence of the modern welfare state in the United Kingdom. The reforms demonstrate the split that had emerged within liberalism, between emerging social liberalism and classical liberalism, and a change in direction for the Liberal Party from laissez-faire traditional liberalism to a party advocating a larger, more active government protecting the welfare of its citizens.
The historian G. R. Searle argued that the reforms had multiple causes, including "the need to fend off the challenge of Labour; pure humanitarianism; the search for electoral popularity; considerations of National Efficiency; and a commitment to a modernised version of welfare capitalism."[1] By implementing the reforms outside the English Poor Laws, the stigma attached to claiming relief was also removed.
During the 1906 general election campaign, neither of the two major parties made poverty an important election issue and no promises were made to introduce welfare reforms. Despite this, the Liberals led by Henry Campbell-Bannerman and later H. H. Asquith won a landslide victory and began introducing wide-ranging reforms as soon as they took office.[2]
Causes
- The split within liberalism led to the rise of modern liberalism within the Liberal Party, and the de-emphasis of what some refer to as "classical" liberalism, which had allegedly been the dominant ideology within the party.[Gladstonian Liberalism) who felt that people should be responsible for their own lives.
- The social investigations of Charles Booth and Seebohm Rowntree. These investigations helped change attitudes towards the causes of poverty. Booth carried out extensive research into the poor living conditions and poverty experienced in London, whilst Rowntree made a social investigation into the problems experienced by the poor in York. These investigations provided statistical evidence for genuine moral concern for the poor. They stated that illness and old age were greater causes of poverty than idleness and moral weakness. Rowntree was himself a close friend of Lloyd George; the pair first met in 1907 after Lloyd George became President of the Board of Trade. Rowntree himself hoped that his proposals could influence Liberal policy.
- The threat from the emerging Labour Party. Socialism was an increasingly popular ideology. If the Liberals did not put forward popular policies, they were in danger of losing votes and handing the House of Commons to the Conservatives.
- The trade union movement was growing especially during the period 1910–1912. Unless living conditions were improved, there were genuine concerns that workers may turn to Communism or rebellion.[3]
- The fact that the Labour Party allowed the Liberals to return to form a government, as they held the seats needed for a majority after the 1910 general election[disambiguation needed], meant that further legislation was passed, since the Labour Party, which was socially democratic, was allied to workers through their affiliated trade unions.
- The condition of soldiers during the Boer War was considered unacceptable. The UK Government had trouble enlisting enough able-bodied recruits to the British Army.
- Germany and the United States were overtaking Britain as economic powers – the success of social legislation in Bismarck's Germany made leading Liberals in the UK such as David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill want to put forward similar legislation.
- The emergence of public works schemes set up to improve living conditions which were often run by the Liberals raised the possibility that such schemes could occur on a national scale.[4]
Previous social legislation
The Conservative government in office before the Liberals came to power passed the Unemployed Workmen Act 1905 and the Employment of Children Act in 1905. Slum housing was also cleared for new houses to be built. Much of this legislation was left for local authorities to implement – their attitudes affected whether legislation was fully implemented.[5] In 1902 Conservatives passed the Education Act that provided funds for denominational religious instruction in Church of England and Roman Catholic schools. The Nonconformists, who formed a major Liberal constituency, were outraged at the help to their theological enemies, but failed to repeal it.[6]
Liberal reforms 1906–1914
Licensing pubs
A favourite goal of
Children
In 1906 children were provided with
The
In 1907, the number of free scholarship places in secondary schools was increased. If working-class pupils passed a scholarship examination, then their fees would be paid for them by the Local Education Authority (LEA). One-quarter of places in most secondary schools would be reserved for scholarship pupils. Bright working-class children were therefore provided with the opportunity to climb "the educational ladder", while for those pupils who failed the scholarship exam, some LEAs had "Central Schools" which provided a practically based curriculum for children between the ages of 11 and 15.[15]
The
Medical inspections began in 1907 but many poor families could not afford the cost of the doctors fees to get treated; it was not until 1912 that medical treatment was provided. However, education authorities largely ignored the provision of free medical treatment for school children.[17] A tax allowance for children was introduced in 1909[19] to help families on low incomes.[20] This allowance of £10 a year was introduced for every child below the age of 16 in the case of income tax payers whose income fell below £500 per annum (this rebate was later doubled in the 1914 budget).[21]
The
Elderly
The Old Age Pensions Act 1908 introduced pensions for those over 70. They were paid 5s a week (estimates of the value of this in 2010 are difficult to ascertain, the average wage of a labourer being around 30s. a week[23]) to single men and women; this sum could be collected at the local post office.[23] In January 1910, 75% of Liberal candidates dwelt on pensions in their election addresses, making it, in the words of one historian, "one of the central Liberal themes of the election".[24]
The pensions were means-tested (to receive the pension, one had to earn less than £31.50 annually) and intentionally low to encourage workers to make their own provisions for the future. An example of how low this amount was is that if an elderly person was to live on their pension alone they fell below Rowntree's poverty line. It was a struggle for elderly persons to claim their pension as they had to prove that they were not drunkards, for example.[citation needed] Also, to qualify for the pension scheme, they had to have worked to their "full potential". There were no fixed guidelines as to what "full potential" was, so people who had been briefly unemployed could be penalised. To be eligible, they also had to have lived in the country for 20 years or more, so many immigrants could not claim a pension, or British people who had worked abroad and returned to Britain to retire. Also, pensioners could not claim a pension if they had been to prison in the last 10 years. On 31 December 1908 a total of 596,038 pensions had been granted.[25]
Workers
In 1906, the
The 1906 Notice Of Accidents Act simplified and improved "the system of reporting accidents in mines, quarries, factories and workshops."
The Regulations of 1907 for the manufacture of paints and colours prohibited women and young persons from manipulating lead colour (defined as any dry carbonate of lead, red lead or any colour containing either of these substances) and ordered monthly medical examinations of all employees engaged in a lead process. Regulations introduced that same year concerning the heading of yarn dyed by means of a lead compound prohibited the employment of young persons and prescribed the medical examination "of all workers in the process once every three months".[33] The Trade Boards Act 1909 created boards to set minimum wage criteria that were legally enforceable. The main provision was to set minimum wages in certain trades with the history of low wages, because of surplus of available workers, the presence of women workers, or the lack of skills. At first it applied to four industries: chain-making, ready-made dresses. paper-box making, and the machine-made lace and finishing trade. About 70 per cent of their 200,000 workers were women.[34] It was later expanded to coal mining and then to other industries with a preponderance of unskilled manual labour by the Trade Boards Act 1918, and by 1924 to farm labourers.
The Mines Accidents (Rescue and Aid) Act 1910 provided for the availability of first aid treatment, rescue work, and fire precautions at mines,[35] and that same year a central Road Board was established to fund improvements in road conditions, a measure made necessary by the new motor traffic. Upon its introduction the new Board began at once to enable the County Councils to begin tarring the surfaces of main roads.[36]
Health and Welfare
A number of innovations in social welfare were carried by the Liberal Government during its time in office. The Housing of the Working Classes and Town Planning Act, as noted by one study, “liberalized still further the terms of housing loans, increasing the proportion of money needed which could be lent and the time for repayment. Local authorities could borrow all or part of the money required from the Public Works Loan Commissioners for 60 years (80 for the land) and Public Utility Societies could borrow two-thirds of the needed cash for 40 years In both cases the interest rate at that time was 372 per cent, but this depended on market fluctuations. Up to 1909 municipal housing had been optional. It now became obligatory where a shortage was judged to exist. The town planning powers conferred have had far-reaching results in preventing congestion in un- built-on areas.”[37]
The 1910 Census Bill sought to obtain more information "about both family structure and urban conditions in order for the government to develop policies to tackle problems such as infant mortality and slum housing", while administrative reforms were carried out that by 1913 "had resulted in a more effective deployment of medical staff in the infirmaries".[38]
Under Part 1 of the National Insurance Act 1911, compulsory health insurance was provided for workers earning less than £160 per year. The scheme was contributed to by the worker who contributed fourpence, the employer who contributed threepence and the government who contributed twopence. The scheme provided sickness benefit entitlement of nine shillings, free medical treatment and maternity benefit of 30 shillings.[39] An estimated 13 million workers came to be compulsorily covered under this scheme.[15] Part 2 of the Act gave workers the right to sick pay of 9s a week and free medical treatment in return for a payment of 4d a week. Sick pay would be paid for 26 weeks of sickness. The medical treatment was provided by doctors who belonged to a "panel" in each district. Doctors received a fee from the insurance fund for each panel patient they treated. The Act also gave workers the right to unemployment pay of 7s 6d a week for 15 weeks in return for a payment of 2½d a week. This scheme was also financed through the contributions of workers and government. Although only a minority of workers were insured by this scheme, it nevertheless covered a number of trades and industries, such as shipbuilding, which were particularly vulnerable to fluctuations in employment.[11]
Although the National Health Insurance scheme was not universal in its coverage,[40] it was nevertheless of great benefit to the majority of Britons. The scheme safeguarded health and made Britain a fitter nation, while doing much to accustom wage earners to medical attention. Doctors also benefited from the scheme in that it provided most of them with a more reliable and higher income, and led to an increase in the number of doctors.[41] The National Health Insurance scheme arguably paved the way for the eventual establishment of the more comprehensive and universal National Health Service (NHS).
Agriculture
Various measures were introduced to improve the quality of rural life. The
Reforms after 1910
After the two general elections of January and December 1910, the Liberal Party did not have a majority in the House of Commons and was reliant on the support of the 80 or so Irish Nationalist MPs to remain in office. However, a wish to retain the support of the 40 or so Labour Party MPs may have been a factor inclining the Liberal governments to further reforms. In 1912, school clinics were set up to treat children who had been diagnosed as having an illness during a School Medical under the 1907 scheme. This measure ensured that more children had access to free medical care.[47] From 1912, Exchequer grants were paid to education authorities providing medical treatment for children, and by 1914, 214 out of the (then) 317 local authorities were providing some kind of medical treatment for children.[13]
Regulations introduced in 1911 concerning the smelting of materials containing lead and the manufacture of
The
In 1913, five additional
People's Budget (1909)
The Liberal reforms were funded by
Lloyd George argued that his budget would eliminate poverty, and commended the budget thus:
This is a war Budget. It is for raising money to wage implacable warfare against poverty and squalidness. I cannot help hoping and believing that before this generation has passed away, we shall have advanced a great step towards that good time, when poverty, and the wretchedness and human degradation which always follows in its camp, will be as remote to the people of this country as the wolves which once infested its forests.[57]
The budget met opposition in the House of Lords and, contrary to British constitutional convention, the Conservatives used their large majority in the Lords to vote down the Budget. In response, the Liberals turned to (what they believed to be) the widespread unpopularity of the Lords to make reducing the power of the Lords an important issue of the January 1910 general election.[58]
The Liberals returned in a
The Lords voted this 1910 Parliament Bill down, so Asquith called a second general election in
In his War Memoirs, Lloyd George said of this time, "the partisan warfare that raged round these topics was so fierce that by 1913 this country was brought to the verge of civil war".[63]
Limitations
While the Liberal reforms were one of Britain's most ambitious welfare reform programmes, there were several limitations to the reforms they passed. Free school meals were not compulsory. Pensions were refused to those who had not been in work most of their life and life expectancy at birth at this time was only 55 so relatively few people lived long enough to receive a pension.[citation needed] The labour exchange programme often managed to find people only part-time casual work. The poor had to pay National Insurance Contributions out of their wages and the 7s 6d was not enough to live on. Unemployment and sickness pay also only lasted for a limited time. Free medical care was available to only a wage-earner, not the wife or children or grandparents and other relatives.[64] The new National Health Insurance scheme also did not provide coverage for all forms of medical care. It did not provide cover for special advice while many people could not get acquire dental, ophthalmic or other treatment through NHI. Also, other people were not covered for convalescent homes, while the only specialist services for those in NHI were for TB and VD.[65] The welfare measures introduced by the Liberal government concerning the sick, the elderly, and the children did, however, lead to a reduction in poverty, with the total number of paupers falling from 916,377 in 1910 to 748,019 by 1914.[13]
Contemporary criticism
The Liberal reforms received criticism from those who saw this level of government action to mitigate social evils as interfering with
There were classical liberals who opposed these reforms; this included
Some workers objected to paying 4d per week to the National Insurance contributions. The chant "Taffy was a Welshman, Taffy was a thief" was chanted at Lloyd George by workers and referred to the suggestion that Welshman Lloyd George was taking their wages away from them.[64] However, Lloyd George responded with his famous phrase "Nine pence for four pence" which referenced the fact that employers and the government were topping up the workers' contributions.[70]
Legislation
- Trade Disputes Act 1906 – Protected trade unions from legal claims for damages by businesses affected by strikes.
- Workmen's Compensation Act 1906 – Granted compensation for injury at work.
- Merchant Shipping Act 1906
- Education (Provision of Meals) Act 1906
- Education (Administrative Provisions) Act 1907 – created school medical inspections.
- Matrimonial Causes Act 1907
- Coal Mines Regulation Act 1908 – Miners now worked 8-hour days.
- Children and Young Persons Act 1908 (Children's Charter)
- Old Age Pensions Act 1908
- Labour Exchanges Act 1909
- Trade Boards Act 1909
- Housing and Town Planning Act 1909
- National Insurance Act 1911
- Shops Act 1911 – shop workers could now take half a day off work per week.
- Coal Mines (Minimum Wage) Act 1912
From 1911 MPs were given a salary of £400 per annum, meaning that it was much easier for working-class people to stand for election.[3]
See also
References
- ISBN 9780198207146.
- ^ "The National Archives Learning Curve | Britain 1906–18 | Liberal Welfare Reforms 1906–11: Gallery". Learningcurve.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 6 May 2009. Retrieved 24 January 2010.
- ^ a b "GCSE Bitesize – History | Modern World History | Britain 1905–1951 | Reforms and reasons". BBC. Retrieved 24 January 2010.
- ^ "Education Scotland – Higher Bitesize Revision – History – Liberal – Motives: Revision 2". BBC. Retrieved 24 January 2010.
- ^ "The National Archives Learning Curve | Britain 1906–18 | Liberal Welfare Reforms 1906–11: Gallery Background". Learningcurve.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 7 May 2009. Retrieved 24 January 2010.
- ^ N.R. Gullifer, "Opposition to the 1902 Education Act," Oxford Review of Education (1982) 8#1 pp. 83–98 in JSTOR
- ^ David M. Fahey, "The Politics of Drink: Pressure Groups and the British Liberal Party, 1883–1908." Social Science (1979): 76–85. in JSTOR
- ^ Donald Read, Edwardian England, 1901–15: society and politics (1972) p 52.
- ^ Colin Cross, The Liberals in Power, 1905–1914 (1963) pp. 69–71.
- ^ Paul Jennings, "Liquor Licensing and the Local Historian: The Victorian Public House". Local Historian 41 (2011): 121–137.
- ^ a b c d Whigs, Radicals, and Liberals, 1815–1914, by Duncan Watts
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- ^ a b c d e f Foundations of the Welfare State by Pat Thane
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- ^ a b Mastering Economic and Social History by David Taylor
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- ^ a b "GCSE Bitesize – History | Modern World History | Britain 1905–1951 | The important reforms". BBC. Retrieved 24 January 2010.
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- ^ Between soft and hard law: the impact of international social security standards on national social security law by Frans Pennings, International Labour Organisation
- ^ A companion to early twentieth-century Britain by Chris Wrigley
- ^ Eugenics and politics in Britain, 1900–1914 by Geoffrey Russell Searle
- ^ ISBN 9783847202035. Retrieved 29 January 2017.
- ^ a b "Education Scotland – Higher Bitesize Revision – History – Liberal – Impact: Revision 1". BBC. Retrieved 24 January 2010.
- ^ Liberal Government and Politics, 1905–15 by Ian Packer
- ^ "Old-age pensions. Official Statistics" The Times (38862, 21 January 1909
- ^ a b c Liberals, radicals, and social politics, 1892–1914 by Hugh Vincent Emy
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- ^ "Two steps forward, one step back – History of Occupational Safety and Health". historyofosh.org.uk. Retrieved 29 January 2017.
- ^ 100 points in Liberal policy and of the Liberal record by Liberal Publication Department, 1914, p. 77
- ^ The Government's record, 1906-1913: seven years of Liberal legislation and administration by Liberal Publication Dept. (Great Britain), p. 101 This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ The Government's record, 1906-1913: seven years of Liberal legislation and administration by Liberal Publication Dept. (Great Britain), p. 102 This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 November 2015. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
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- ^ Poverty, Inequality and Health in Britain, 1800–2000: A Reader edited by George Davey Smith, Daniel Dorling, Mary Shaw
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- Martin Pugh
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- ^ Lloyd George, David (1938). "1: The Brewing of the Storm". War Memoirs. Vol. 1 (New ed.). London: Odhams Press Limited. p. 28.
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- ^ British Social Welfare in the Twentieth Century, edited by Robert M. Page and Richard Silburn
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- ^ W. H. Greenleaf, The British Political Tradition. Volume Two: The Ideological Heritage (London: Methuen, 1983), pp. 95–97.
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Further reading
- Blewett, Neal. Peers, the Parties and the People: General Elections of 1910 (1972)
- Briggs, Asa. "The Political Scene" in Simon Nowell-Smith, ed. Edwardian England, 1901–14 (1964), 43–102.
- Brown, Kenneth D. "The Labour Party and the Unemployment Question, 1906–1910." Historical Journal 14#3 (1971): 599–616.
- Cregier, Don M. Bounder from Wales: Lloyd George's Career Before the First World War (U of Missouri Press, 1976).
- Cross, Colin. The Liberals in Power, 1905–1914 (1963)
- Daglish, N. D. "A 'difficult and somewhat thankless task': politics, religion and the Education Bill of 1908." Journal of educational administration and history 31.1 (1999): 19–35.
- Gilbert, Bentley Brinkerhoff. "David Lloyd George: Land, The Budget, and Social Reform." American Historical Review 81.5 (1976): 1058–1066.
- Gilbert, Bentley B. "David Lloyd George: the reform of British landholding and the budget of 1914." Historical Journal 21.1 (1978): 117-141 online.
- Halévy, Elie. History of the English People, 1905–1914 (1934), 686pp.
- Harris, Bernard. The origins of the British welfare state: social welfare in England and Wales, 1800–1945 (Palgrave, 2004).
- Häusermann, Silja, Georg Picot, and Dominik Geering. "Review article: Rethinking party politics and the welfare state–recent advances in the literature." British Journal of Political Science 43#1 (2013): 221–240. online
- Hawkins, Alun. "Edwardian Liberalism", History Workshop (1977) No. 4 pp. 143–61
- Hay, James Roy. Origins of the Liberal Welfare Reforms, 1906–14 (1975) 78pp complete online
- Jenkins, Roy. Asquith: portrait of a man and an era (1964)
- Mommsen, Wolfgang J., and Wolfgang Mock, eds. The emergence of the welfare state in Britain and Germany, 1850–1950 (Taylor & Francis, 1981).
- Murray, Bruce K. The People's Budget, 1909–1910: Lloyd George and Liberal Politics (1980).
- Packer, Ian. Liberal government and politics, 1905–15 (Springer, 2006).
- Packer, Ian. Lloyd George, liberalism and the land: The land issue and party politics in England, 1906–1914 (Boydell & Brewer, 2001).
- Quinault, Roland. "Asquith's Liberalism." History 77.249 (1992): 33–49.
- Russell, A. K. Liberal landslide: the general election of 1906 (1973).
- Thompson, James. "The Genesis of the 1906 Trades Disputes Act: Liberalism, Trade Unions, and the Law." Twentieth Century British History 9.2 (1998): 175–200.
- Weiler, Peter. The New Liberalism: Liberal Social Theory in Great Britain, 1889–1914 (Routledge, 2016).
Primary sources
- The Liberal Year Book: 1908. 1908.
External links
- BBC site assessing reasons for the Liberal reforms
- Liberal welfare reforms 1906–11
- Achievements of the Liberal reforms
- An interactive 'spider diagram' showing reasons for the Liberal reforms
- BBC bitesize revision site
- BBC page on the nature of the reforms
- BBC page on the effect the Liberal reforms had on different sections of society
- The People's Budget and the Welfare State David Lloyd George Exhibition, National Library of Wales
- National Insurance Act 1911