Libertarianism in the United States

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This article is about the origin, history and development of libertarianism in the United States. For the broader political philosophy that upholds liberty as a core principle, see Libertarianism. For the most common type of libertarianism in the United States, see Right-libertarianism.

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The historical Gadsden flag is frequently used to represent libertarianism in the U.S.

In the United States, libertarianism is a

David Nolan[15] and Ron Paul.[16]

The

left-wing market anarchism,[23] referred to as market-oriented left-libertarianism to distinguish itself from other forms of libertarianism.[24]

Libertarianism includes anarchist and libertarian socialist tendencies, although they are not as widespread as in other countries.

small government[29][30][31] and a major reversal of the welfare state.[32]

The major

liberalism worldwide, has also been used as a political color for modern libertarianism in the United States.[35][36] The Gadsden flag, a symbol first used by American revolutionaries, is frequently used by libertarians and the libertarian-leaning Tea Party movement.[37][38][39]

Although libertarian continues to be widely used to refer to

anti-state socialists internationally,[25][40][41][42][43][44] its meaning in the United States has deviated from its political origins to the extent that the common meaning of libertarian in the United States is different from elsewhere.[17][26][27][28][45] The Libertarian Party asserts the following core beliefs of libertarianism: "Libertarians support maximum liberty in both personal and economic matters. They advocate a much smaller government; one that is limited to protecting individuals from coercion and violence. Libertarians tend to embrace individual responsibility, oppose government bureaucracy and taxes, promote private charity, tolerate diverse lifestyles, support the free market, and defend civil liberties".[46][47]

Definition

Main article: Definition of anarchism and libertarianism

Since the 19th century, the term libertarian has referred to advocates for freedom of the will, or anyone who generally advocated for liberty, but its long association with

libertarian socialist to avoid anarchism's negative connotations and emphasize its connections with socialism.[28][49]

The revival of

free-market liberalism and neoliberalism.[50] As a term, libertarian or economic libertarian has the most colloquial acceptance to describe a member of the movement, with the latter term being based on both the ideology's primacy of economics and its distinction from libertarians of the New Left.[51]

According to Ian Adams: "Ideologically, all US parties are liberal and always have been. Essentially they espouse classical liberalism, that is a form of democratised

Anarcho-capitalist theorist Murray Rothbard argued that protesters should rent a street for protest from its owners. The abolition of public amenities is a common theme in some modern American libertarian writings.[54]

According to definition in political science, libertarianism cannot be neither to the left or to the right as the resemblance between liberalism and libertarianism is superficial. Correctly understood, libertarianism resembles a view that liberalism historically defined itself against. And the same is the case for social democracy and conservative ideas, originating from liberal democracy. In essence, both political sides support basic rights and liberties, equality of opportunity, and the government's role in supporting efficient markets, public goods, which is incompatible with libertarianism. The idea of libertarianism rejects the notion that political power is a public power, which makes the idea incompatible with democracy as well, in which the state is represented through democratically elected subjects. Libertarianism is therefore most akin to "feudalism without feudal rulers", in which a network of private contracts is the ruling element. For that reason, libertarianism as a movement that only exists in America while Europe is devoid of libertarian movements after the 19th century.[55]

History

18th century

John Locke, regarded as the father of liberalism

During the 18th century and

Encyclopedists among their ideological forebears; and [...] usually share an admiration for Thomas Jefferson[58][59][60] and Thomas Paine".[61]

The United States Declaration of Independence was inspired by Locke in its statement: "[T]o secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it".[62] According to American historian Bernard Bailyn, during and after the American Revolution, "the major themes of eighteenth-century libertarianism were brought to realization" in constitutions, bills of rights, and limits on legislative and executive powers, including limits on starting wars.[63]

According to Murray Rothbard, the libertarian creed emerged from the liberal challenges to an "absolute central State and a king ruling by divine right on top of an older, restrictive web of feudal land monopolies and urban guild controls and restrictions" as well as the mercantilism of a bureaucratic warfaring state allied with privileged merchants. The object of liberals was individual liberty in the economy, in personal freedoms and civil liberty, separation of state and religion and peace as an alternative to imperial aggrandizement. He cites Locke's contemporaries, the Levellers, who held similar views. Also influential were the English Cato's Letters during the early 1700s, reprinted eagerly by American colonists who already were free of European aristocracy and feudal land monopolies.[62]

In January 1776, only two years after coming to America from England, Thomas Paine published his pamphlet

Common Sense calling for independence for the colonies.[64] Paine promoted liberal ideas in clear and concise language that allowed the general public to understand the debates among the political elites.[65] Common Sense was immensely popular in disseminating these ideas,[66] selling hundreds of thousands of copies.[67] Paine would later write the Rights of Man and The Age of Reason and participate in the French Revolution.[64] Paine's theory of property showed a "libertarian concern" with the redistribution of resources.[68]

19th and 20th century

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No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority
greatly influenced libertarianism in the United States

In the 19th century, libertarian philosophies included

anarchist journal to use libertarian.[26][27] Tucker was the first American born to use libertarian.[83] By around the start of the 20th century, the heyday of individualist anarchism had passed.[84]

anarchist socialism to state socialism

Moving into the 20th century, the

Libertarian Book Club. Members included Sam Dolgoff, Russell Blackwell, Dave Van Ronk, Enrico Arrigoni and Murray Bookchin. This Libertarian League had a narrower political focus than the first, promoting anarchism and syndicalism. Its central principle, stated in its journal Views and Comments, was "equal freedom for all in a free socialist society".[86] Branches of the Libertarian League opened in a number of other American cities, including Detroit and San Francisco. It was dissolved at the end of the 1960s.[87][88]

The 1960s also saw an alliance between the nascent

left-wing market anarchism.[23][24]

Mid-20th century

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H. L. Mencken, one of the first people to privately call himself libertarian

During the mid-20th century, many with

classical liberal beliefs began to describe themselves as libertarians.[11] Important American writers such as Rose Wilder Lane, H. L. Mencken, Albert Jay Nock, Isabel Paterson, Leonard Read (the founder of the Foundation for Economic Education) and the European immigrants Ludwig von Mises and Ayn Rand carried on the intellectual libertarian tradition. In fiction, one can cite the work of the science fiction author Robert A. Heinlein, whose writing carried libertarian underpinnings. Mencken and Nock were the first prominent figures in the United States to privately call themselves libertarians.[100][101][102] They believed Franklin D. Roosevelt had co-opted the word liberal for his New Deal policies which they opposed and used libertarian to signify their allegiance to individualism. In 1923, Mencken wrote: "My literary theory, like my politics, is based chiefly upon one idea, to wit, the idea of freedom. I am, in belief, a libertarian of the most extreme variety".[103]

As of the mid-20th century, no word was used to describe the ideological outlook of this group of thinkers. Most of them would have described themselves as

social-democratic
. American advocates of classical liberalism bemoaned the loss of the word liberal and cast about for others to replace it.

Max Eastman, a former socialist who proposed the terms New Liberalism and liberal conservative

In August 1953, Max Eastman proposed the terms New Liberalism and liberal conservative which were not eventually accepted.[104] In May 1955, the term libertarian was first publicly used in the United States as a synonym for classical liberal when writer Dean Russell (1915–1998), a colleague of Leonard Read and a classical liberal himself, proposed the libertarian solution and justified the choice of the word as follows:

Many of us call ourselves "liberals." And it is true that the word "liberal" once described persons who respected the individual and feared the use of mass compulsions. But the leftists have now corrupted that once-proud term to identify themselves and their program of more government ownership of property and more controls over persons. As a result, those of us who believe in freedom must explain that when we call ourselves liberals, we mean liberals in the uncorrupted classical sense. At best, this is awkward and subject to misunderstanding. Here is a suggestion: Let those of us who love liberty trade-mark and reserve for our own use the good and honorable word "libertarian."[11]

Murray Rothbard, who popularized the term libertarian in the 1960s

Subsequently, a growing number of Americans with classical liberal beliefs in the United States began to describe themselves as libertarian. The person most responsible for popularizing the term libertarian was Murray Rothbard, who started publishing libertarian works in the 1960s.[105] Before the 1950s, H. L. Mencken and Albert Jay Nock had been the first prominent figures in the United States to privately call themselves libertarians.[100][101][102] In the 1950s, Russian-American novelist Ayn Rand developed a philosophical system called Objectivism, expressed in her novels The Fountainhead and Atlas Shrugged as well as other works which influenced many libertarians.[106] However, she rejected the label libertarian and harshly denounced the libertarian movement as the "hippies of the right".[107][108] Nonetheless, philosopher John Hospers, a one-time member of Rand's inner circle, proposed a non-initiation of force principle to unite both groups—this statement later became a required pledge for candidates of the Libertarian Party and Hospers himself became its first presidential candidate in 1972.[109][110] Along with Isabel Paterson and Rose Wilder Lane, Rand is described as one of the three female founding figures of the modern libertarian movement in the United States.[111]

Although influenced by the work of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists, themselves influenced by classical liberalism.

classical economists while he was a student of neoclassical economics and supported the subjective theory of value. Rothbard sought to meld 19th-century American individualists' advocacy of free markets and private defense with the principles of Austrian economics, arguing that there is a "scientific explanation of the workings of the free market (and of the consequences of government intervention in that market) which individualist anarchists could easily incorporate into their political and social Weltanschauung".[13]

Barry Goldwater, whose libertarian-oriented challenge to authority had a major impact on the libertarian movement
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Students for a Democratic Society. They began founding their own publications like Rothbard's The Libertarian Forum[115][116] and organizations like the Radical Libertarian Alliance.[117] The split was aggravated at the 1969 Young Americans for Freedom convention when more than 300 libertarians coordinated to take control of the organization from conservatives. The burning of a draft card in protest to a conservative proposal against draft resistance sparked physical confrontations among convention attendees, a walkout by a large number of libertarians, the creation of libertarian organizations like the Society for Individual Liberty and efforts to recruit potential libertarians from conservative organizations.[118] The split was finalized in 1971 when conservative leader William F. Buckley Jr. attempted to divorce libertarianism from the movement, writing in a New York Times article as follows: "The ideological licentiousness that rages through America today makes anarchy attractive to the simple-minded. Even to the ingeniously simple-minded".[119]

David Nolan, founder of the Libertarian Party

As a result of the split, a small group of Americans led by

individual rights.[19] The book won a National Book Award in 1975.[122] According to libertarian essayist Roy Childs, "Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia single-handedly established the legitimacy of libertarianism as a political theory in the world of academia".[123]

British historians Emily Robinson, Camilla Schofield, Florence Sutcliffe-Braithwaite and Natalie Thomlinson have argued that by the 1970s Britons were keen about defining and claiming their individual rights, identities and perspectives. They demanded greater personal autonomy and

economically liberal conservatives who, in varying degrees, have marginalized social, cultural, and national conservatives".[128]

Late 20th century

See also: Right-libertarianism § By country
Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia helped spread libertarian ideas worldwide in the 1970s.

Academics as well as proponents of the

political parties[129][130] and that libertarianism is increasingly viewed as a capitalist free-market position.[131] However, libertarian intellectuals Noam Chomsky,[43] Colin Ward[44] and others argue that the term libertarianism is considered a synonym for anarchism and libertarian socialism by the international community and that the United States is unique in widely associating it with the capitalist free-market ideology.[26][27][41][42] Modern libertarianism in the United States mainly refers to classical and economic liberalism. It supports capitalist free-market approaches as well as neoliberal policies and economic liberalization reforms such as austerity, deregulation, free trade, privatization and reductions in government spending in order to increase the role of the private sector in the economy and society.[29][30][31] This is unlike the common meaning[17][43][44] of libertarianism elsewhere,[28][41][42][45] with libertarianism being used to refer to the largely overlapping right-libertarianism, the most popular conception of libertarianism in the United States,[20][132] where the term itself was first coined and used by Joseph Déjacque to refer to a new political philosophy rejecting all authority and hierarchies, including the market and property.[26][27]

In a 1975 interview with

House of Representatives to prepare for a failed run for the Senate and eventually apologized to his libertarian friends for having supported Reagan.[137] By 1987, Paul was ready to sever all ties to the Republican Party as explained in a blistering resignation letter.[135] While affiliated with both Libertarian and Republican parties at different times, Paul said he had always been a libertarian at heart.[136][137] Paul was the Libertarian Party candidate for president in 1988.[138]

In the 1980s, libertarians such as Paul and Rothbard

presidency of Reagan has been "a disaster for libertarianism in the United States"[143] and Paul described Reagan himself as "a dramatic failure".[135]

21st century

In the 21st century, libertarian groups have been successful in advocating tax cuts and regulatory reform. While some argue that the American public as a whole shifted away from libertarianism following the

personal freedoms.[146] Through 20 polls on this topic spanning 13 years, Gallup found that voters who are libertarian on the political spectrum ranged from 17 to 23% of the electorate.[33] While libertarians make up a larger portion of the electorate than the much-discussed "soccer moms" and "NASCAR dads", this is not widely recognized as most of these vote for Democratic and Republican party candidates, leading some libertarians to believe that dividing people's political leanings into "conservative", "liberal" and "confused" is not valid.[148]

Former United States Rep. Ron Paul of Texas, who set off a surge of libertarian ideology in the US while running for head of state in 2008 and 2012

In the United States, libertarians may emphasize economic and constitutional rather than religious and personal policies, or personal and international rather than economic policies[149] such as the Tea Party movement (founded in 2009) which has become a major outlet for libertarian Republican ideas,[150][151] especially rigorous adherence to the Constitution, lower taxes and an opposition to a growing role for the federal government in health care. However, polls show that many people who identify as Tea Party members do not hold traditional libertarian views on most social issues and tend to poll similarly to socially conservative Republicans.[152][153][154] During the 2016 presidential election, many Tea Party members eventually abandoned more libertarian-leaning views in favor of Donald Trump and his right-wing populism.[155] Additionally, the Tea Party was considered to be a key force in Republicans reclaiming control of the House of Representatives in 2010.[156] Texas Congressman Ron Paul's

Reagan administration turned the United States' big trade deficit into debt, making the United States a debtor nation for the first time since World War I.[158][159] Ron Paul was affiliated with the libertarian-leaning Republican Liberty Caucus[160] and founded the Campaign for Liberty, a libertarian-leaning membership and lobbying organization.[161] Rand Paul is a Senator who continues the tradition of his father Ron Paul, albeit more moderately as he has described himself as a constitutional conservative[162] and has both embraced[163] and rejected libertarianism.[164]

Former New Mexico Gov. Gary Johnson, nicknamed "Governor Veto", ran for head of state within the Libertarian Party in 2012 and 2016.

Since 2012, former New Mexico Governor and two-time Libertarian Party presidential nominee

2022 Libertarian National Convention, the Mises Caucus, a paleolibertarian faction, became the dominant faction on the Libertarian National Committee.[177][178]

Only member of the Libertarian Party to hold a seat in the United States Congress, Michigan Rep. Justin Amash

A variant of non-intellectual right-libertarianism that has been described as "growing in prominence", "changing the dynamics" of the conservative movement in the U.S.,[179] and even "largely defin[ing] the Republican coalition"[180] in the 2020s, has been dubbed "Barstool conservatism". First coined in 2021[181] by journalist Rod Matthew Walther,[182] the term describes a movement whose primary base of support is young non-religious males,[183][184][180] and combines total opposition to political correctness and "wokism" with the more traditional libertarian opposition to controls on the pursuits of pleasure (sex, gambling, pornography, alcohol).[183][180][184]

Anti-capitalist libertarianism has recently aroused renewed interest in the early 21st century. The Winter 2006 issue of the

Studies in Mutualist Political Economy.[185] One variety of this kind of libertarianism has been a resurgent mutualism, incorporating modern economic ideas such as marginal utility theory into mutualist theory.[186] Carson's Studies in Mutualist Political Economy helped to stimulate the growth of new-style mutualism, articulating a version of the labor theory of value incorporating ideas drawn from Austrian economics.[187]

In 2022, the term kremlintarian emerged as a description of an individual claiming libertarian identity while defending the behavior of totalitarian regimes.[188][189]

Schools of thought

See also: Outline of libertarianism

Consequentialist and deontological libertarianism

There are broadly two ethical viewpoints within libertarianism, namely

initiation of force and fraud are rights-violations and that is sufficient reason to oppose those acts.[192]

Deontological libertarianism is supported by the Libertarian Party. In order to become a card-carrying member, one must sign an oath opposing the initiation of force to achieve political or social goals.[193] Prominent consequentialist libertarians include David D. Friedman,[194] Milton Friedman, Friedrich Hayek,[195][196][197] Peter Leeson, Ludwig von Mises[198] and R. W. Bradford.[199] Prominent deontological libertarians include Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Ayn Rand and Murray Rothbard.[192]

In addition to the consequentialist libertarianism as promoted by Hayek, Mark Bevir holds that there is also left and right libertarianism.[200]

Left and right libertarianism

common property while right-libertarianism is the political position that considers them to be originally unowned and therefore may be appropriated at-will by private parties without the consent of, or owing to, others.[205]

Followers of

free-market' conservatives".[97]

While holding that the important distinction for libertarians is not left or right, but whether they are "government apologists who use libertarian rhetoric to defend state aggression",

private business as a "great victim of the state" and favoring a non-interventionist foreign policy, sharing the Old Right's "opposition to empire".[207]

Although some libertarians such as Walter Block,[208] Harry Browne,[209] Leonard Read[210] and Murray Rothbard[211] reject the political spectrum (especially the left–right political spectrum)[211][212] whilst denying any association with both the political right and left,[213] other libertarians such as Kevin Carson,[214] Karl Hess,[215] Roderick T. Long[216] and Sheldon Richman[217] have written about libertarianism's left-wing opposition to authoritarian rule and argued that libertarianism is fundamentally a left-wing position.[24][218] Rothbard himself previously made the same point, rejecting the association of statism with the left.[219]

Thin and thick libertarianism

Thin and thick libertarianism are two kinds of libertarianism. Thin libertarianism deals with legal issues involving the

initiation of force against others.[220] Walter Block is an advocate of thin libertarianism.[221] Jeffrey Tucker describes thin libertarianism as "brutalism" which he compares unfavorably to "humanitarianism".[222]

Thick libertarianism goes further to also cover moral issues. Charles W. Johnson describes four kinds of thickness, namely thickness for application, thickness from grounds, strategic thickness and thickness from consequences.[223] Thick libertarianism is sometimes viewed as more humanitarian than thin libertarianism.[224] Wendy McElroy has stated that she would leave the movement if thick libertarianism prevails.[225]

Stephan Kinsella rejects the dichotomy altogether, writing: "I have never found the thick-thin paradigm to be coherent, consistent, well-defined, necessary, or even useful. It's full of straw men, or seems to try to take credit for quite obvious and uncontroversial assertions".[226]

Organizations

Alliance of the Libertarian Left

The Alliance of the Libertarian Left is a left-libertarian organization that includes a multi-tendency coalition of

minarchists, mutualists and voluntaryists.[227]

Cato Institute

Cato Institute building in Washington, D.C.

The

Ed Crane, Murray Rothbard and Charles Koch,[228] chairman of the board and chief executive officer of the conglomerate Koch Industries, the second largest privately held company by revenue in the United States.[229] In July 1976, the name was changed to the Cato Institute.[228][230]

The Cato Institute was established to have a focus on public advocacy, media exposure and societal influence.[231] According to the 2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report by the Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program of the University of Pennsylvania, the Cato Institute is number 16 in the "Top Think Tanks Worldwide" and number 8 in the "Top Think Tanks in the United States".[232] The Cato Institute also topped the 2014 list of the budget-adjusted ranking of international development think tanks.[233]

Center for Libertarian Studies

The

Randolph Bourne Institute.[234]

Center for a Stateless Society

The

Austrian economics with the labor theory of value by attempting to incorporate both subjectivism and time preference.[236][237]

Foundation for Economic Education

The Foundation for Economic Education is a libertarian think tank dedicated to the "economic, ethical and legal principles of a free society". It publishes books and daily articles as well as hosting seminars and lectures.[238]

Free State Project

The Free State Project is an activist libertarian movement formed in 2001. It is working to bring libertarians to the state of New Hampshire to protect and advance liberty. As of July 2022, the project website showed that 19,988 people have pledged to move and 6,232 people identified as Free Staters in New Hampshire.[239]

Free State Project participants interact with the political landscape in New Hampshire in various ways. In 2017, there were 17 Free Staters in the New Hampshire House of Representatives,[240] and in 2021, the New Hampshire Liberty Alliance, which ranks bills and elected representatives based on their adherence to what they see as libertarian principles, scored 150 representatives as "A−" or above rated representatives.[241] Participants also engage with other like-minded activist groups such as Rebuild New Hampshire,[242] Young Americans for Liberty,[243] and Americans for Prosperity.[244]

Libertarian Party

The

David Nolan in Westminster, Colorado,[15] in part prompted due to concerns about the Nixon administration, the Vietnam War, conscription and the introduction of fiat money. It was officially formed on December 11, 1971, in Colorado Springs, Colorado.[245]

Liberty International

The Liberty International is a non-profit, libertarian educational organization based in San Francisco. It encourages activism in libertarian and individual rights areas by the freely chosen strategies of its members. Its history dates back to 1969[246] as the Society for Individual Liberty founded by Don Ernsberger and Dave Walter.[247]

The previous name of the Liberty International as the International Society for Individual Liberty[248] was adopted in 1989 after a merger with the Libertarian International was coordinated by Vince Miller, who became president of the new organization.[249][250]

Mises Institute

Campus of the Mises Institute in Auburn, Alabama

The

Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises, its website states that it exists to promote "teaching and research in the Austrian school of economics, and individual freedom, honest history, and international peace, in the tradition of Ludwig von Mises and Murray N. Rothbard".[252] According to the Mises Institute, Nobel Prize winner Friedrich Hayek served on their founding board.[253]

The Mises Institute was founded in 1982 by Lew Rockwell, Burton Blumert and Murray Rothbard following a split between the Cato Institute and Rothbard, who had been one of the founders of the Cato Institute.[254] Additional backing came from Mises's wife Margit von Mises, Henry Hazlitt, Lawrence Fertig and Nobel Economics laureate Friedrich Hayek.[255] Through its publications, the Mises Institute promotes libertarian political theories, Austrian School economics and a form of heterodox economics known as praxeology ("the logic of action").[256][257]

Molinari Institute

The Molinari Institute is a left-libertarian, free-market anarchist organization directed by philosopher Roderick T. Long. It is named after Gustave de Molinari, whom Long terms the "originator of the theory of Market Anarchism".[258]

Reason Foundation

The Reason Foundation is a libertarian think tank and non-profit and tax-exempt organization that was founded in 1978.[259][260] It publishes the magazine Reason and is committed to advancing "the values of individual freedom and choice, limited government, and market-friendly policies". In the 2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report by the Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program of the University of Pennsylvania, the Reason Foundation was number 41 out of 60 in the "Top Think Tanks in the United States".[261]

People

Intellectual sources

Politicians

Political commentators

Contentions

Political spectrum

David Nolan

conservative ideology united with more traditionalist conservative thought and goals by a desire to retain hierarchies and traditional social relations.[262] Others also describe libertarianism as a reactionary ideology for its support of laissez-faire capitalism and a major reversal of the modern welfare state.[32]

In the 1960s, Rothbard started the publication

statist than liberals, Rothbard tried to reach out to leftists.[263] In 1971, Rothbard wrote about his view of libertarianism which he described as supporting free trade, property rights and self-ownership.[211] He would later describe his brand of libertarianism as anarcho-capitalism[264][265][266] and paleolibertarianism.[267][268]

Anthony Gregory points out that within the libertarian movement, "just as the general concepts "left" and "right" are riddled with obfuscation and imprecision, left- and right-libertarianism can refer to any number of varying and at times mutually exclusive political orientations".[207] Some libertarians reject association with either the right or the left. Leonard Read wrote an article titled "Neither Left Nor Right: Libertarians Are Above Authoritarian Degradation".[210] Harry Browne wrote: "We should never define Libertarian positions in terms coined by liberals or conservatives—nor as some variant of their positions. We are not fiscally conservative and socially liberal. We are Libertarians, who believe in individual liberty and personal responsibility on all issues at all times".[209]

Tibor R. Machan titled a book of his collected columns Neither Left Nor Right.[213] Walter Block's article "Libertarianism Is Unique and Belongs Neither to the Right Nor the Left" critiques libertarians he described as left (C. John Baden, Randy Holcombe and Roderick T. Long) and right (Edward Feser, Hans-Hermann Hoppe and Ron Paul). Block wrote that these left and right individuals agreed with certain libertarian premises, but "where we differ is in terms of the logical implications of these founding axioms".[208] On the other hand, libertarians such as Kevin Carson,[214] Karl Hess,[215] Roderick T. Long[216] and Sheldon Richman[217] consciously label themselves as left-libertarians.[21][24]

Objectivism

Main article: Objectivism
See also: Objectivism and libertarianism

philosophical system developed by Russian-American writer Ayn Rand. Rand first expressed Objectivism in her fiction, most notably We the Living (1936), The Fountainhead (1943) and Atlas Shrugged (1957), but also in later non-fiction essays and books such as The Virtue of Selfishness (1964) and Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal (1966), among others.[269] Leonard Peikoff, a professional philosopher and Rand's designated intellectual heir,[270][271] later gave it a more formal structure. Rand described Objectivism as "the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute".[272] Peikoff characterizes Objectivism as a "closed system" that is not subject to change.[273]

Objectivism's central tenets are that

physical form—a work of art—that one can comprehend and to which one can respond emotionally. The Objectivist movement founded by Rand attempts to spread her ideas to the public and in academic settings.[274]

Objectivism has been and continues to be a major influence on the libertarian movement. Many libertarians justify their political views using aspects of Objectivism.

Atlas Society have argued that Objectivism is an "open system" and are more open to libertarians.[278][279] Although academic philosophers have mostly ignored or rejected Rand's philosophy, Objectivism has been a significant influence among conservatives and libertarians in the United States.[280][281]

Analysis, reception and criticism

Main article: Criticism of libertarianism

Criticism of libertarianism includes ethical, economic, environmental, pragmatic and philosophical concerns,[282][283][284][190][285][286] including the view that it has no explicit theory of liberty.[132] It has been argued that laissez-faire capitalism does not necessarily produce the best or most efficient outcome[287] and that its philosophy of individualism as well as policies of deregulation do not prevent the exploitation of natural resources.[288]

Michael Lind has observed that of the 195 countries in the world today, none have fully actualized a society as advocated by libertarians, arguing: "If libertarianism was a good idea, wouldn't at least one country have tried it? Wouldn't there be at least one country, out of nearly two hundred, with minimal government, free trade, open borders, decriminalized drugs, no welfare state and no public education system?"[289] Lind has criticized libertarianism for being incompatible with democracy and apologetic towards autocracy.[290] In response, libertarian Warren Redlich argues that the United States "was extremely libertarian from the founding until 1860, and still very libertarian until roughly 1930".[291]

Nancy MacLean has criticized libertarianism, arguing that it is a radical right ideology that has stood against democracy. According to MacLean, libertarian-leaning Charles and David Koch have used anonymous, dark money campaign contributions, a network of libertarian institutes and lobbying for the appointment of libertarian, pro-business judges to United States federal and state courts to oppose taxes, public education, employee protection laws, environmental protection laws and the New Deal Social Security program.[292]

Left-wing

Libertarianism has been criticized by the

exploitation of labor and through alienation from the product of one's labor.[298][299][300][301][302]

city states.[306]

Other libertarians have criticized what they term propertarianism,[307] with Ursula K. Le Guin contrasting in The Dispossessed (1974) a propertarian society with one that does not recognize private property rights[308] in an attempt to show that property objectified human beings.[309][310] Left-libertarians such as Murray Bookchin objected to propertarians calling themselves libertarians.[25] Bookchin described three concepts of possession, namely property itself, possession and usufruct, i.e. appropriation of resources by virtue of use.[311]

Right-wing

From the

political right, traditionalist conservative philosopher Russell Kirk criticized libertarianism by quoting T. S. Eliot's expression "chirping sectaries" to describe them. Kirk had questioned the fusionism between libertarian and traditionalist conservatives that marked much of the post-war conservatism in the United States.[312] Kirk stated that "although conservatives and libertarians share opposition to collectivism, the totalist state and bureaucracy, they have otherwise nothing in common"[313] and called the libertarian movement "an ideological clique forever splitting into sects still smaller and odder, but rarely conjugating". Believing that a line of division exists between believers in "some sort of transcendent moral order" and "utilitarians admitting no transcendent sanctions for conduct", he included the libertarians in the latter category.[314][315] He also berated libertarians for holding up capitalism as an absolute good, arguing that economic self-interest was inadequate to hold an economic system together and that it was even less adequate to preserve order.[313] Kirk believed that by glorifying the individual, the free market and the dog-eat-dog struggle for material success, libertarianism weakened community, promoted materialism and undermined appreciation of tradition, love, learning and aesthetics, all of which in his view were essential components of true community.[313]

Author and professor Carl Bogus states that there were fundamental differences between libertarians and traditionalist conservatives in the United States as libertarians wanted the market to be unregulated as possible while traditionalist conservatives believed that big business, if unconstrained, could impoverish national life and threaten freedom.[316] Libertarians also considered that a strong state would threaten freedom while traditionalist conservatives regarded a strong state, one which is properly constructed to ensure that not too much power accumulated in any one branch, was necessary to ensure freedom.[316]

See also

References

  1. ^ Long, Roderick T. (1998). "Towards a Libertarian Theory of Class". Social Philosophy and Policy. 15 (2): 303–349 (online: "Part 1", "Part 2").
  2. ^ Becker, Lawrence C.; Becker, Charlotte B. (2001). Encyclopedia of Ethics: P–W. 3. Taylor & Francis. p. 1562.
  3. ^ Paul, Ellen F. (2007). Liberalism: Old and New. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 187.
  4. ^ Christiano, Thomas; John P. Christman (2009). Contemporary Debates in Political Philosophy. "Individualism and Libertarian Rights". Malden, Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 121 Archived June 12, 2020, at the Wayback Machine.
  5. ^ Vallentyne, Peter (March 3, 2009). "Libertarianism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, California: Stanford University. Retrieved March 5, 2010.
  6. ^ Bevir, Mark (2010). Encyclopedia of Political Theory. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications; Cato Institute. p. 811.
  7. ^ Boaz, David; Kirby, David (October 18, 2006). The Libertarian Vote. Cato Institute.
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  11. ^ a b c Russell, Dean (May 1955). "Who Is A Libertarian?". The Freeman. 5 (5). Foundation for Economic Education. Archived from the original on June 26, 2010. Retrieved March 6, 2010.
  12. ^
    ISBN 978-0-8018-2126-4
    . [O]nly a few individuals like Murray Rothbard, in Power and Market, and some article writers were influenced by [past anarchists like Spooner and Tucker]. Most had not evolved consciously from this tradition; they had been a rather automatic product of the American environment
  13. ^ a b Rothbard, Murray (1965) [2000]. "The Spooner-Tucker Doctrine: An Economist's View". Journal of Libertarian Studies. 20 (1): 7.
  14. ^ Van der Vossen, Bas (January 28, 2019). "Libertarianism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved August 23, 2020.
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  16. ^ a b Caldwell, Christopher (July 22, 2007). "The Antiwar, Anti-Abortion, Anti-Drug-Enforcement-Administration, Anti-Medicare Candidacy of Dr. Ron Paul". The New York Times. Archived from the original on September 22, 2012. Retrieved September 22, 2012.
  17. ^
    Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow: Left-Libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward
    . Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 4. "'Libertarian' and 'libertarianism' are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for 'anarchist' and 'anarchism', largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of 'anarchy' and its derivatives. The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho-capitalism, 'minimal statism' and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Rothbard and Nozick and their adoption of the words 'libertarian' and 'libertarianism'. It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their right libertarianism and the left libertarianism of the anarchist tradition".
  18. Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism
    . London: Harper Perennial. p. 565. "The problem with the term 'libertarian' is that it is now also used by the Right. [...] In its moderate form, right libertarianism embraces laissez-faire liberals like Robert Nozick who call for a minimal State, and in its extreme form, anarcho-capitalists like Murray Rothbard and David Friedman who entirely repudiate the role of the State and look to the market as a means of ensuring social order".
  19. ^ a b Schaefer, David Lewis (April 30, 2008). "Robert Nozick and the Coast of Utopia" Archived August 21, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. The New York Sun. Retrieved June 26, 2019.
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  21. ^ a b c Long, Riderick T. "Anarchism". In Gaus, Gerald F.; D'Agostino, Fred, eds. (2012). The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy. p. 227.
  22. ISBN 978-0199264797
    . "'Left-libertarianism' is a new term for an old conception of justice, dating back to Grotius. It combines the libertarian assumption that each person possesses a natural right of self-ownership over his person with the egalitarian premise that natural resources should be shared equally. Right-wing libertarians argue that the right of self-ownership entails the right to appropriate unequal parts of the external world, such as unequal amounts of land. According to left-libertarians, however, the world's natural resources were initially unowned, or belonged equally to all, and it is illegitimate for anyone to claim exclusive private ownership of these resources to the detriment of others. Such private appropriation is legitimate only if everyone can appropriate an equal amount, or if those who appropriate more are taxed to compensate those who are thereby excluded from what was once common property. Historic proponents of this view include Thomas Paine, Herbert Spencer, and Henry George. Recent exponents include Philippe Van Parijs and Hillel Steiner."
  23. ^ a b Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Brooklyn: Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. pp. 1–16.
  24. ^ a b c d Sheldon Richman (February 3, 2011). "Libertarian Left: Free-market anti-capitalism, the unknown ideal". The American Conservative. Archived June 10, 2019, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved November 18, 2019.
  25. ^ a b c Bookchin, Murray (January 1986). "The Greening of Politics: Toward a New Kind of Political Practice". Green Perspectives: Newsletter of the Green Program Project (1). "We have permitted cynical political reactionaries and the spokesmen of large corporations to pre-empt these basic libertarian American ideals. We have permitted them not only to become the specious voice of these ideals such that individualism has been used to justify egotism; the pursuit of happiness to justify greed, and even our emphasis on local and regional autonomy has been used to justify parochialism, insularism, and exclusivity – often against ethnic minorities and so-called deviant individuals. We have even permitted these reactionaries to stake out a claim to the word libertarian, a word, in fact, that was literally devised in the 1890s in France by Elisée Reclus as a substitute for the word anarchist, which the government had rendered an illegal expression for identifying one's views. The propertarians, in effect – acolytes of Ayn Rand, the earth mother of greed, egotism, and the virtues of property – have appropriated expressions and traditions that should have been expressed by radicals but were willfully neglected because of the lure of European and Asian traditions of socialism, socialisms that are now entering into decline in the very countries in which they originated".
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    . p. 641. "The word 'libertarian' has long been associated with anarchism, and has been used repeatedly throughout this work. The term originally denoted a person who upheld the doctrine of the freedom of the will; in this sense, Godwin was not a 'libertarian', but a 'necessitarian'. It came however to be applied to anyone who approved of liberty in general. In anarchist circles, it was first used by Joseph Déjacque as the title of his anarchist journal Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social published in New York in 1858. At the end of the last century, the anarchist Sébastien Faure took up the word, to stress the difference between anarchists and authoritarian socialists".
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Bibliography

External links

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