House of Wisdom
House of Wisdom | |
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بَيْت الْحِكْمَة | |
Mongol conquest ) |
The House of Wisdom (
Finally, it was destroyed in 1258 during the
More recently, the narrative of the Abbasid House of Wisdom acting as a major intellectual center, university, and playing a sizable role during the translation movement has been understood by some historians to be a myth, constructed originally over the course of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries by Orientalists and, through their works, propagated its way into scholarship and nationally-oriented works until more recent reinvestigations of the evidence.[6][7][8]
Background
Greco-Arabic translation movement
The House of Wisdom existed as a part of the major
Influx of scholars
The House of Wisdom was made possible by the consistent flow of Arab, Persian, and other scholars of the Islamic world to Baghdad, owing to the city's position as capital of the Abbasid Caliphate.
History
Origins and establishment
Throughout the 4th to 7th centuries, scholarly work in the
During the
In 750, the Abbasid dynasty replaced the Umayyad as the ruling dynasty of the Islamic Empire, and, in 762, the Caliph al-Mansur (r. 754–775) built Baghdad and made it his capital instead of Damascus. Baghdad's location and cosmopolitan population made the perfect location for a stable commercial and intellectual center.[18] The Abbasid dynasty had a strong Persian bent,[21] and adopted many practices from the Sasanian Empire—among those, that of translating foreign works, except that now texts were translated into Arabic. For this purpose, al-Mansur founded a palace library modeled after the Sasanian Imperial Library, and provided economic and political support to the intellectuals working there.[22] He also invited delegations of scholars from India and other places to share their knowledge of mathematics and astronomy with the new Abbasid court.[18]
In the Abbasid Empire, many foreign works were translated into Arabic from Greek, Chinese, Sanskrit, Persian and Syriac. The Translation Movement gained great momentum during the reign of Caliph Harun al-Rashid, who, like his predecessor, was personally interested in scholarship and poetry. Originally the texts concerned mainly medicine, mathematics and astronomy; but other disciplines, especially philosophy, soon followed. Al-Rashid's library, the direct predecessor to the House of Wisdom, was also known as Bayt al-Hikma or, as the historian al-Qifti called it, Khizanat Kutub al-Hikma (Arabic for "Storehouse of the Books of Wisdom").[17]
Al-Ma'mun's reign
Under the sponsorship of Caliph al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833), economic support of the House of Wisdom and scholarship in general was greatly increased. Al-Ma'mun, under the tutelage of his father, Caliph Harun al-Rashid, memorized the Quran word for word under the eyes of leading religious scholar of the court. Al-Ma'mun's mistakes were instantly corrected. It was a common trait amongst Muslim poets, scientists, and authors to memorize their original texts for public lectures, which were typically done inside a mosque. This practice appeared to be ingrained inside al-Ma'mun's intellectual capabilities.[23]
His love for science was so great that it was said that he preferred scientific texts as the spoils of war.
The House of Wisdom was much more than an academic center removed from the broader society. Its experts served several functions in Baghdad. Scholars from the Bayt al-Hikma usually doubled as engineers and architects in major construction projects, kept accurate official calendars, and were public servants. They were also frequently medics and consultants.[18]
Al-Ma'mun was personally involved in the daily life of the House of Wisdom, regularly visiting its scholars and inquiring about their activities. He would also participate in and
Following his predecessors, al-Ma'mun would send expeditions of scholars from the House of Wisdom to collect texts from foreign lands. In fact, one of the directors of the House was sent to
Al-Mutawakkil's reign
The House of Wisdom flourished under al-Ma'mun's successors
Destruction by the Mongol army
On February 13, 1258, the Mongols entered the city of the caliphs, starting a full week of pillage and destruction.
Along with all other libraries in Baghdad, the House of Wisdom was destroyed by
Many of the books were also torn apart by pillagers so that the leather covers could be made into sandals.[35]
Main activities
The House of Wisdom included a society of scientists and academics, a translation department, and a library that preserved the knowledge acquired by the Abbasids over the centuries.[18] Research and study of alchemy, which was later used to form the structure of modern chemistry, was also conducted there. Further, it was also linked to astronomical observations and other major experimental endeavors.
Institutionalized by al-Ma'mun, the academy encouraged the transcription of Greek philosophical and scientific efforts. Additionally, he imported manuscripts of important texts that were not accessible to the Islamic countries from Byzantium to the library.
The House of Wisdom was much more than a library, and a vast amount of original scientific and philosophical work was produced by scholars and intellectuals in relation to it (although many were lost due to the destruction of the library). This allowed Muslim scholars to verify astronomical information that was handed down from past scholars.[2]
Translations from Greece, India, and Persia
The Translation Movement lasted for two centuries and was a large contributing factor to the growth of scientific knowledge during the golden age of Arabic science. Ideas and wisdom from other cultures around the world, Greece, India, and Persia, were translated into Arabic contributing to further advances in the Islamic Empire. An important goal during this time was to create a comprehensive library that contained all of the knowledge gained throughout this movement. Advances were made in areas like mathematics, physics, astronomy, medicine, chemistry, philosophy, and engineering. The influential achievement of translation revealed to scholars in the empire to the limitless body of early knowledge in the Ancient Near East and Greek traditions, developing the birth of primary scholarship beyond philosophy and scholarship. The engagement across arts and sciences assorts and stretches intelligence realms and brings growth to new methods of understanding. This was accomplished through academic knowledge and creative rehearsal.[36] The House of Wisdom was known for being a space for scholarly growth and contribution which during the time greatly contributed to the Translation Movement.[37]
The Translation Movement started in this House of Wisdom and lasted for over two centuries. Over a century and a half, primarily Middle Eastern Oriental Syriac Christian scholars translated all scientific and philosophic Greek texts into Arabic language in the House of Wisdom.[38][39] The translation movement at the House of Wisdom was inaugurated with the translation of Aristotle's Topics. By the time of al-Ma'mun, translators had moved beyond Greek astrological texts, and Greek works were already in their third translations.[1] Authors translated include: Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates, Euclid, Plotinus, Galen, Sushruta, Charaka, Aryabhata and Brahmagupta. Many important texts were translated during this movement including a book about the composition of medicinal drugs, a book on this mixing and the properties of simple drugs, and a book on medical matters by Pedanius Dioscorides. These, and many more translations, helped with the advancements in medicine, agriculture, finance, and engineering.
Furthermore, new discoveries motivated revised translations and commentary correcting or adding to the work of ancient authors.[18] In most cases names and terminology were changed; a prime example of this is the title of Ptolemy's Almagest, which is an Arabic modification of the original name of the work: Megale Syntaxis.[18]
Original contributions
Besides their translations of earlier works and their commentaries on them, scholars at the Bayt al-Ḥikma produced important original research. For example, the noted mathematician
Abū Yūsuf Yaʿqūb ibn Isḥaq al-Kindī[40] was also another historical figure that worked at the House of Wisdom. He studied cryptanalysis but he was also a great mathematician. Al-Kindī is the most famous for being the first person to introduce Aristotle's philosophy to the Arabic people. He fused Aristotle's philosophy with Islamic theology, which created an intellectual platform for philosophers and theologians to debate over 400 years. A fellow expert on Aristotle was Abū ʿUthmān al-Jāḥiẓ, who was born in Basra around 776 but he spent most of his life in Baghdad. Al-Ma’mun employed al-Jāḥiẓ as a personal tutor for his children, but he had to dismiss him because al-Jāḥiẓ was "Goggled-Eyed", i.e., he had wide, staring eyes which made him frightening to look at. Al-Jāḥiẓ was one of the few Muslim scholars who was deeply concerned with biology. He wrote Book of Animals, which discusses the way animals adapt to their surroundings, similarly to Aristotle's History of Animals.[41] In his book, al-Jāḥiẓ argued that animals like dogs, foxes, and wolves must have descended from a common ancestor because they shared similar characteristics and features such as four legs, fur, tail, and so on.
Mūsā ibn Shākir was an astrologer and a friend of Caliph Harun al-Rashid's son, al-Ma'mun. His sons, collectively known as the
In medicine, Hunayn wrote an important treatise on ophthalmology. Other scholars also wrote on smallpox, infections and surgery. Note that these works would later become standard textbooks of medicine during the European Renaissance.[47]
Under al-Ma'mun's leadership science saw for the first time wide-ranging research projects involving large groups of scholars. In order to check Ptolemy's observations, the caliph ordered the construction of the first astronomical observatory in Baghdad (see Observatories section below). The data provided by Ptolemy was meticulously checked and revised by a highly capable group of geographers, mathematicians and astronomers.[18] Al-Ma'mun also organized research on the circumference of the Earth and commissioned a geographic project that would result in one of the most detailed world-maps of the time. Some consider these efforts the first examples of large state-funded research projects.[48]
Astronomical observatories
The creation of the first astronomical observatory in the Islamic world was ordered by Caliph al-Ma'mun in 828 in Baghdad. The construction was directed by scholars from the House of Wisdom: senior astronomer Yahya ibn abi Mansur and the younger Sanad ibn Ali al-Alyahudi.[49] It was located in al-Shammasiyya and was called Maumtahan Observatory. After the first round of observations of Sun, Moon and the planets, a second observatory on Mount Qasioun, near Damascus, was constructed. The results of this endeavor were compiled in a work known as al-Zij al-Mumtahan, which translates as "The Verified Tables".[48][50]
Dispute theory of Dimitri Gutas
Yale University Arabist Dimitri Gutas disputes the existence of the House of Wisdom as is its form and function. He posits in his 1998 book that "House of Wisdom" is a translation error from Khizanat al-Hikma, which he asserts simply means a storehouse, and that there are few sources from the era during the Abbasid Era that mention the House of Wisdom by the name Bayt al-Hikma.[1] Gutas asserts that, without consistent naming conventions, a physical ruin, or corroborating texts, the phrase "House of Wisdom" may just as well have been a metaphor for the larger Academic community in Baghdad rather than a physical academy specializing in translation work.[1] Gutas mentions that in all of the Graeco-Arabic translations none of them mention the House of Wisdom, including the notable Hunayn ibn Ishaq.[51] There is also no proof that the Sultan ever held open debates among scholars in the library since that would not have been socially acceptable.[1] This theory is debatable, owing to the destruction of the Round city of Baghdad and conflicting sources in both academic texts and poetry.[52][4] It is likely, given the Abbasid caliphs' patronage of the arts and sciences, that an extensive library existed in Baghdad, and that scholars could have access to such texts, judging by the volume of work produced by scholars centered in Baghdad.[4] There is a strong chance that the library was only used to preserve history from the Sassanian Dynasty and the translations that were done there were only done to achieve that goal.[53] Once the Abbasids took over they most likely continued this tradition with the added goal of pursuing both astrology and astronomy.[1]
Notable intellectuals
This is a list of notable people related to the House of Wisdom.[11]
- Abbasid court who translated the works of Aristotle
- Islamic Iberia (modern day Spain), he was a Muslim philosopher who was famous for his commentary on Aristotle
- Al-Ghazali (1058–1111)—Persian theologian who was the author of The Incoherence of the Philosophers, which challenged the philosophers who favored Aristotelianism
- Muhammad al-Idrisi (1099–1169)—Arab geographer who worked under Roger II of Sicily and contributed to the Map of the World
- Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (d. 850)—Persian polymathhead of the House of Wisdom, founder of Algebra, the word "algorithm" was named after him.
- Al-Kindi (d. 873)—considered to be among the first Arab philosophers, he combined the ideology of Aristotle and Plato
- Arabmathematician and astronomer who translated Greek texts
- Nestorian Christian) scholar and philosopher who was placed in charge of the House of Wisdom. In his lifetime he translated over 116 writings by many of the most significant scholars in history.
- The Banu Musa brothers—remarkable engineers and mathematicians of Persiandescent
- Sahl ibn Harun (d. 830)—philosopher and polymath
- Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf ibn Maṭar (786–833)—Sabian mathematician and a translator who was known for his translation of Euclid's works
- Thābit ibn Qurra (826–901)—Sabian mathematician, astronomer and translator who reformed Ptolemaic system. Considered as the founding father of statics.[54]
- Banu Musabrothers
- Qusta ibn Luqa (820–912)—mathematician and physician who translated Greek texts into Arabic
- Abu Bishr Matta ibn Yunus (870–940)— Christian physician, scientist and translator
- Yahya ibn al-Batriq (796–806)— Assyrian Christian astronomer and translator
- Yahya ibn Adi (893–974)— Syriac Jacobite Christian philosopher, theologian and translator
- Zij al-Sindhind
- Al-Jahiz (781–861)—author and biologist known for Kitāb al-Hayawān and numerous literary works
- Ismail al-Jazari (1136–1206)—physicist and engineer who is best known for his work in writing The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices in 1206
- Omar Khayyam (1048–1131)—Persian poet, mathematician, and astronomer most famous for his solution of cubic equations
Other "Houses of Wisdom"
A major contribution from the House of Wisdom in Baghdad is the influence it had on other libraries in the Islamic world. It has been recognised as a factor that connected many different people and empires because of its educational and research components. The House of Wisdom has been accredited and respected throughout Islamic history and was the model for many libraries during and following its time of function. A large number of libraries emerged during and after this time and it was evident that these libraries were based on the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. These libraries had the intention of reproducing the advantageous and beneficial characteristics that are known throughout the world because of the House of Wisdom.[55]
Some other places have also been called House of Wisdom, which should not be confused with Baghdad's Bayt al-Hikma:
- In Cairo, Dar al-Hikmah, the "House of Wisdom", was another name of the House of Knowledge, founded by the Fatimid Caliph, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah in 1004.[2] Included in this House of Knowledge was a library that had a collection so vast, it was known as a "Wonder of the World". The beginning of the foundation of Cairo's House of Wisdom was by Fatimid al-Aziz billah who was a lover of books and collected a vast amount of them. He was determined to collect every book that was authored or translated in the Baghdad House of Wisdom. The actual founder al-Hākim bi-Amr Allah, assembled a group of scholars to work in the library by authoring books and contributing to the scientific knowledge acquired in this place. He provided a large amount of supplies like ink, paper, and anything else that the scholars may have needed in order to make their contributions.[55]
- The Aghlabids House of Wisdom founded in Raqqada by Amir Ibrahim Ibn Mohammad al-Aghlabī. Ibrahim was enticed by the acquisition of knowledge and knew the positive qualities that education, scholarship, and innovative ideas brought to societies around the world. A multitude of scholarly manuscripts, scientific journals, and books were found here with the intent to create a library with an equivalent reputation to the Baghdad House of Wisdom. A group of scholars would journey to Baghdad annually to retrieve important literary works and other writings and bring them back to the library which helped contribute to the unique and rare material found in the Aghlabids House of Wisdom.[55]
- The Andalusian House of Wisdom founded in Andalusia by an Umayyad caliph, al-Hakam al-Mustansir, who was known as a master of scholar for his knowledge in many different scientific categories. He started one of the largest collections of manuscripts, writings, and books that consisted of a multitude of genres and scientific categories. The Andalusian House of Wisdom was constructed based on the Baghdad House of Wisdom and was used to store the vast amount of knowledge acquired by al-Mustansir. During this period scientific development, art, architecture, and much more grew and prospered.[55]
- There is a research institute in Baghdad called Bayt Al-Hikma after the Abbasid-era research center. While the complex includes a 13th-century madrasa (33°20′32″N 44°23′01″E / 33.3423°N 44.3836°E), it is not the same building as the medieval Bayt al-Hikma. It was damaged during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
- , established in 1983.
- The main library at 'Bait al Hikmah'.
- La Maison de Sagesse (House of Wisdom), an international NGO based in France.[56][57]
- The House of Wisdom دارالحکمة س, Tehran, Iran, established in 2017 by Alireza Mohammadi.
- The House of Wisdom, Fez, Morocco, established in 2018 by Cardinal Barbarin and Khal Torabully.[58][59]
See also
Notes and references
Notes
References
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- ^ Lyons, Jonathan (2008). The House of Wisdom. p. 64.[ISBN missing]
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- ^ "The House of Wisdom: Baghdad's Intellectual Powerhouse". 1001 inventions. May 22, 2019. Archived from the original on December 4, 2021. Retrieved December 4, 2021.
- ^ Kaser, Karl The Balkans and the Near East: Introduction to a Shared History Archived 2015-11-28 at the Wayback Machine p. 135.
- ^ Yazberdiyev, Dr. Almaz Libraries of Ancient Merv Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine Dr. Yazberdiyev is Director of the Library of the Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan, Ashgabat.
- ^ a b c d Al-Khalili 2011, pp. 67–78
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Lyons, pp. 55–77
- ^ Meri, Josef W. and Jere L. Bacharach. “Medieval Islamic Civilization”. Vol. 1 Index A–K. 2006, p. 304.
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Neither were there any Muslims among the Ninth-Century translators. Amost all of them were Christians of various Eastern denominations: Jacobites, Melchites, and, above all, Nestorians.
- ^ "Wiet. Baghdad". Archived from the original on 2010-01-07. Retrieved 2006-12-22.
- ^ Mohadi, Mawloud (February 2019). "The House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikmah), an Educational Institution during the Time of the Abbasid Dynasty. A Historical Perspective". Pertanika Journal of Social Science and Humanities. 27 (2): 1297–1313.
- ^ Lyons, Jonathan (2008). The House of Wisdom. p. 65.
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- ISBN 978-1139056144, retrieved 2020-12-18
- ^ Al-Khalili 2011, p. 64
- ^ Al-Khalili 2011, p. 58
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- ^ Gingerish, Owen (April 1986). "Islamic Astronomy". 4. 254: 74–83.
- ^ Al-Khalili 2011, p. 135
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- ^ Saliba, p. 243
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- ^ Suzy, Elhafez (July 14, 2017). "The House of Wisdom: Interdisciplinarity in the Arab-Islamic Empire". The Academic Platform. Archived from the original on December 10, 2021. Retrieved December 10, 2021.
- ^ Al-Khalili, Jim (2011). The house of wisdom: how Arabic science saved ancient knowledge and gave us the Renaissance. Penguin. pp. 107–133.[ISBN missing]
- ^ Rosenthal, Franz The Classical Heritage in Islam The University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1975, p. 6[ISBN missing]
- ^ Adamson, London Peter The Great Medieval Thinkers: Al-Kindi Oxford University Press, New York, 2007, p. 6. London [ISBN missing], Peter Adamson is a Lecturer in Late Ancient Philosophy at King's College.
- ^ Al-Khalili 2011, p. 88
- ^ Al-Jahiz, Kitab al-Haywān, vol. 4 (Al-Matba’ah al-Hamīdīyah al-Misrīyah, Cairo, 1909), p. 23
- ^ FSTC (10 August 2007). "The Mechanics of Banu Musa in the Light of Modern System and Control Engineering". www.muslimheritage.com. Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation (FSTC). Archived from the original on 2018-04-25. Retrieved 25 April 2018.
- ^ Koetsier
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- ^ Al-Khalili 2011, pp. 152–171
- ^ Moore
- ^ a b Al-Khalili, pp. 79–92
- ^ Hockey 1249
- ^ Zaimeche, p. 2
- ^ Gutas, Dimitri (1998). Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement in Baghdad and Early 'Abbasaid Society (2nd-4th/5th-10th c.) (Arabic Thought and Culture). p. 59.
- ^ Lyons, Jonathan (2014). "Bayt al-Hikmah". In Kalin, Ibrahim (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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- ^ ISSN 2039-2117.
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