Lichenology

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Lichen

Lichenology is the branch of

cyanobacterium) with a filamentous fungus
. Lichens are chiefly characterized by this symbiosis.

Study of lichens draws knowledge from several disciplines:

lichenologists. Study of lichens is conducted by both professional and amateur
lichenologists.

Methods for species identification include reference to

Sylvia Sharnoff and Stephen Sharnoff and that book's 2016 expansion, Keys to Lichens of North America: Revised and Expanded by the same three authors joined by Susan Laurie-Bourque.[1]

A chemical

ultraviolet light
, providing another form of lichen identification test.

Lichenologists may also study the growth and growth rate of lichens,

edible lichens. As with any other field of study, lichenology has its own set of rules for taxonomic nomenclature and its own set of other terminology
.

History

The beginnings

Lichens as a group have received less attention in classical treatises on botany than other groups although the relationship between humans and some species has been documented from early times. Several species have appeared in the works of

Lichens in response to the morphological characteristics of the lichen thallus.[5]

After the revolution in taxonomy brought in by Linnaeus and his new system of classification lichens are retained in the Plant Kingdom forming a single group Lichen with eight divisions within the group according to the morphology of the thallus.[6] The taxonomy of lichens was first intensively investigated by the Swedish botanist Erik Acharius (1757–1819), who is therefore sometimes named the "father of lichenology". Acharius was a student of Carl Linnaeus. Some of his more important works on the subject, which marked the beginning of lichenology as a discipline, are:

  • Lichenographiae Suecia prodromus (1798)
  • Methodus lichenum (1803)
  • Lichenographia universalis (1810)
  • Synopsis methodica lichenum (1814)
Lichen on rocks
Oakmoss (Evernia prunastri)

Later lichenologists include the American scientists

Konstantin Merezhkovsky, as well as amateurs such as Louisa Collings
.

Over the years research shed new light into the nature of these organisms still classified as plants. A controversial issue surrounding lichens since the early 19th century is their reproduction. In these years a group of researchers faithful to the tenets of Linnaeus considered that lichens reproduced sexually and had sexual reproductive organs, as in other plants, independent of whether asexual reproduction also occurred. Other researchers only considered asexual reproduction by means of

Propagules.[7]

19th century

Against this background appeared the Swedish botanist

Elias Fries or Enumeratio Critico Lichenum Europaeorum 1850 by Ludwig Schaerer[9] in Germany.[10]

Erik Acharius (1757–1819), Swedish botanist, the father of lichenology

But these works suffer from being superficial and mere lists of species without further physiological studies.[11] It took until the middle of the 19th century for research to catch up using biochemical and physiological methods. In Germany Hermann Itzigsohn [de][12] and Johann Bayrhoffer,[13] in France Edmond Tulasne and Camille Montagne, in Russia Fedor Buhse,[14] in England William Allport Leighton and in the United States Edward Tuckerman began to publish works of great scientific importance.

Scientific publications settled many unknown facts about lichens. In the French publication Annales des Sciences Naturelles in an article of 1852 "Memorie pour servir a l'Histoire des Lichens Organographique et Physiologique" by Edmond Tulasne, the reproductive organs or apothecia of lichens was identified.[15][16]

These new discoveries were becoming increasingly contradictory for scientists. The

symbiotic
relation with the fungal part of the thallus. That the algae continued to multiply showed that they were not mere contaminants.

It was

phenotypes
.

French botanist (Jean-Baptiste) Édouard Bornet (1828–1911)

20th century

In 1909 the Russian lichenologist

Endosymbiosis.[20]

Despite the above studies the dual nature of lichens remained no more than a theory until in 1939 the Swiss researcher Eugen A Thomas[21] was able to reproduce in the laboratory the phenotype of the lichen Cladonia pyxidata[22] by combining its two identified components.

During the 20th century botany and mycology were still attempting to solve the two main problems surrounding lichens. On the one hand the definition of lichens and the relationship between the two symbionts and the taxonomic position of these organisms within the plant and fungal kingdoms. There appeared numerous renowned researchers within the field of lichenology such as

Antonina Georgievna Borissova, Irwin M. Brodo, and George Albert Llano
.

Lichenology has found applications beyond

epilithic lichen growing on a substrate is directly proportional to the time from first exposure of the area to the environment as seen in studies by Roland Beschel[24] in 1950 and is especially useful in areas exposed for less than 1000 years. Growth is greatest in the first 20 to 100 years with 15–50 mm growth per year and less in the following years with average growth of 2–4 mm per year.[25]

The difficulty of giving a definition applicable to every known lichen has been debated since lichenologists first recognised the dual nature of lichens. In 1982 the International Association for Lichenology convened a meeting to adopt a single definition of lichen drawing on the proposals of a committee. The chairman of this committee was the renowned researcher Vernon Ahmadjian. The definition finally adopted was that lichen could be considered as the association between a fungus and a photosynthetic symbiont resulting in a thallus of specific structure.[26]

Such a simple

David L. Hawksworth considered the definition imperfect because it is impossible to determine which one thallus is of a specific structure since thalli changed depending upon the substrate and conditions in which they developed. This researcher represents one of the main trends among lichenologists who consider it impossible to give a single definition to lichens since they are a unique type of organism.[26]

Today studies in lichenology are not restricted to the description and taxonomy of lichens but have application in various scientific fields. Especially important are studies on

sulphur dioxide, which causes acid rain and prevents water absorption.

K S Merezhkovsky Russian Lichenologist (1855–1921)

Lichens in pharmacology

Although several species of lichen have been used in

Gram negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas. With these investigations the number of antibacterial substances and possible drug targets known to be produced by lichens increased ergosterol, usnic acid etc.[30]

Interest in the potential of substances synthesised by lichens increased with the end of World War II along with the growing interest in all antibiotic substances. In 1947 antibacterial action was identified in extracts of Cetraria islandica and the compounds identified as responsible for bacterial inhibition were shown to be d-protolichosteric acid and d-1-usnic acid.[31] Further investigations have identified novel antibacterial substances, Alectosarmentin[32] or Atranorin.[33]

Antibacterial action of substances produced by lichens is related to their ability to disrupt bacterial

phenolics such as usnic acid derivatives.[34]

From the 1950s the lichen product

antitumour research. These studies revealed some in vitro antitumour activity by substances identified in two common lichens Peltigera leucophlebia and Collema flaccidum.[35]

Recent work in the field of applied biochemistry has shown some antiviral activity with some lichen substances. In 1989 K Hirabayashi[36] presented his investigations on inhibitory lichen polysaccharides in HIV infection.[37]

Bibliography

  • "Protocols in Lichenology: Culturing, Biochemistry, Ecophysiology and Use in Biomonitoring" (Springer Lab Manuals, Kraner, Ilse, Beckett, Richard and Varma, Ajit (28 Nov 2001)
  • Lichenology in the British Isles, 1568–1975: An Historical and Biographical Survey, D. L. Hawksworth and M. R. D. Seaward (Dec 1977)
  • "Lichenology: Progress and Problems" (Special Volumes/Systematics Association) Denis Hunter Brown et al. (10 May 1976)
  • Lichenology in Indian Subcontinent, Dharani Dhar Awasthi (1 Jan 2000)
  • Lichenology in Indian Subcontinent 1966–1977, Ajay Singh (1980)
  • CRC Handbook of Lichenology, Volume II: v.2, Margalith Galun (30 Sep 1988)
  • A Textbook of General Lichenology, Albert Schneider (24 May 2013)
  • Horizons in Lichenology D. H. Dalby (1988)
  • Bibliography of Irish Lichenology, M. E. Mitchell (Nov 1972)
  • Diccionario de Liquenologia/Dictionary of Lichenology, Kenneth Allen Hornak (1998)
  • "Progress and Problems in Lichenology in the Eighties: Proceedings" (Bibliotheca Lichenologica), Elisabeth Peveling (1987)
  • A Textbook of General Lichenology with Descriptions and Figures of the Genera Occurring in the North Eastern United States, Albert Schneider (Mar 2010)
  • The Present Status and Potentialities of the Lichenology in China, Liu Hua Jie (1 Jan 2000)
  • Lichens to Biomonitor the Environment, Shukla, D. K. Vertika, Upreti and Bajpai, Rajesh (Aug 2013)
  • Lichenology and Bryology in the Galapagos Islands with Checklists of the Lichens and Bryophytes thus far Reported, William A. Weber (1966)
  • Flechten Follmann: Contributions to Lichenology in Honour of Gerhard Follmann, Gerhard Follmann, F. J. A. Daniels, Margot Schultz and Jorge Peine (1995)
  • Environmental Lichenology: Biomonitoring Trace Element Air Pollution, Joyce E. Sloof (1993)
  • The Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory: Devoted to Bryology and Lichenology, Zennosuke Iwatsuki (1983)
  • Contemporary Lichenology and Lichens of Western Oregon, W. Clayton Fraser (1968)
  • Irish Lichenology 1858–1880: Selected Letters of Isaac Carroll, Theobald Jones, Charles Larbalestier (1996)
  • Lichens from West of Hudson's Bay (Lichens of Arctic America Vol. 1), John W. Thompson (1953)
  • Les Lichens - Morphologie, Biologie, Systematique, Fernand Moreau (1927)
  • "Eric Acharius and his Influence on English Lichenology" (Botany Bulletins), David J. Galloway (Jul 1988)
  • "Lichenographia Thompsoniana: North American Lichenology in Honour of John W. Thompson", M. G. Gleen (May 1998)
  • "Monitoring with Lichens-Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop", Nimis, Pier Luigi, Scheidegger, Christoph and Wolseley, Patricia (Dec 2001)
  • Contributions to Lichenology: In Honour of A. Henssen, H. M. Jahns and A. Henssen (1990)
  • Studies in Lichenology with Emphasis on Chemotaxonomy, Geography and Phytochemistry: Festschrift Christian Leuckert, Johannes Gunther Knoph, Kunigunda Schrufer and Harry J. M. Sipman (1995)
  • Swedish Lichenology: Dedicated to Roland Moberg, Jan Erik Mattsson, Mats Wedin and Inga Hedberg (Sep 1999)
  • Index of Collectors in Knowles the Lichens of Ireland (1929) and Porter's Supplement: with a Conspectus of Lichen, M. E. Mitchell, Matilda C. Knowles and Lilian Porter (1998)
  • Biodeterioration of Stone Surfaces: Lichens and Biofilms as Weathering Agents of Rocks and Cultural Heritage, Larry St. Clair and Mark Seaward (Oct 2011)
  • The Lichen Symbiosis, Vernon Ahmadjian (Aug 1993)
  • Lichen Biology, Thomas H. Nash (Jan 2008)
  • Fortschritte der Chemie organischer Naturstoffe/ Progress in the Chemistry of Organic Natural Products, S. Hunek (Oct 2013)

Notable lichenologists

Lichen collections

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ "mostly Clavarieae", according to Druce.[4]

References

  1. ISBN 978-0300195736
    .
  2. ^ Lauder Lindsay, William (1856). A Popular History of British Lichens p. 22
  3. ^ Lauder Lindsay, William (1856). A Popular History of British Lichens p. 23
  4. ^ Eckel, P. M. (2010–2021). "A Grammatical Dictionary of Botanical Latin: coralloides". Missouri Botanical Garden. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  5. ^ Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1700). Institutiones rei herbariae [Institutions of botany] (in Latin). Vol. 1.
  6. ^ Lauder Lindsay, William (1856). A Popular History of British Lichens. p. 24.
  7. ^ Lauder Lindsay, William. A Popular History of British Lichens. p. 25.
  8. ^ Acharius, Erik (1814). Synopsis Methodica Lichenum: Systens omnes hujus ordinis naturalis detectas [Synopsis of lichen Methods, systems of this natural order detected] (in Latin). Svanborg.
  9. ^ "Edit History: Schaerer, Ludwig Emanuel (Louis-Emmanuel) (1785-1853) on JSTOR". plants.jstor.org.
  10. ^ Lauder Lindsay, William (1856). A Popular History of British Lichens. p. 27.
  11. JSTOR 2478161
    .
  12. ^ "Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries".
  13. ^ "Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries".
  14. ^ "Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries".
  15. S2CID 84605645
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  16. ^ Lauder Lindsay, William (1856). A Popular History of British Lichens. p. 23.
  17. ^ "Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries".
  18. JSTOR 3753090
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  19. S2CID 84580224
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  20. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2003)053[1008:mm]2.0.co;2
    .
  21. ^ Species:Eugen A. Thomas
  22. ^ "Pixie Cups (Cladonia pyxidata)".
  23. ISBN 84-475-1923-6
  24. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-02-03. Retrieved 2014-01-21.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  25. ISBN 978-0521812016
    .
  26. ^ a b David L. Hawksworth (1989) "Interactions Fungus and Alga in Lichen Symbiosis liquenoides" Annals of the Botanical Garden of Madrid (46).
  27. ^ http://lichens.science.oregonstate.edu/antibiotics/lichen_antibiotics.htm Mike Crockett, Stacie Kageyama, Delfina Homen, Carrie Lewis, Jane Osborn, Logan Sander (2003). "Antibacterial Properties of four Pacific North West Lichens".
  28. ^ "Wikispaces".
  29. PMID 17750561
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  30. ^ Bustinza, Francisco (1948) "Contribution to the Study of Antibiotics Produced by Lichens". Annals of the Botanical Garden of Madrid (7) ISSN pp. 511–548.
  31. ^ Bustinza, Francisco (1951) "Contribution to the Study of Antibacterial Activity in Cetraria islandica". Annals of the Botanical Garden of Madrid (10) ISSN pp. 144–149.
  32. PMID 7964789
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  33. doi:10.1016/S0022-2860(02)00626-9
    .
  34. ^ Neli Kika Honda & Wagner Vilegas (1998) "The Chemistry of Lichens" (Port)[1] Química Nova 22(1) ISSN 0100-4042
  35. ^ "EBI Search".
  36. PMID 2575016
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  37. ^ Francisco Javier Toledo Marante, Ana Garcia Costellano, Francisco Leon Oyola and Jaime Bermejo Barrera "Ecologia Quimica en Hongos y Liquenes" (Spa) Columbian Academy of Science 28 ISSN 0370-3908 pp. 509–528 [2]
  38. ^ "Herbaria | The British Lichen Society". www.britishlichensociety.org.uk.
  39. ^ "The Lichen Collection at the Botanische Staatssammlung München". www.botanischestaatssammlung.de.
  40. ^ "Collections | Canadian Museum of Nature". nature.ca.
  41. ^ ":: Welcome to NBRI ::". www.nbri.res.in. Archived from the original on 2015-01-14.
  42. ^ "Herbarium: Iowa State University". Archived from the original on 2013-10-04. Retrieved 2014-01-24.
  43. ^ "Fungi & Lichens | National Museum Wales". Archived from the original on 2014-01-24. Retrieved 2014-01-24.
  44. ^ "Botany collections | Natural History Museum". www.nhm.ac.uk.
  45. ^ "Lichens - The William & Lynda Steere Herbarium". sweetgum.nybg.org.
  46. ^ "RBGE Lichen Taxonomy". February 1, 2014. Archived from the original on 2014-02-01.
  47. ^ "Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew: Science and Horticulture: Sending specimens to Kew". April 6, 2013. Archived from the original on 2013-04-06.
  48. ^ "University of Michigan Herbarium - Collections". February 2, 2014. Archived from the original on 2014-02-02.
  49. ^ "- Collections". December 19, 2023. Archived from the original on 2023-09-21.
  50. ^ "- Collections". December 19, 2023. Archived from the original on 2017-07-06.
  51. ^ "National Museums NI". www.nmni.com.

External links

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