Ligature (writing)
In writing and typography, a ligature occurs where two or more graphemes or letters are joined to form a single glyph. Examples are the characters ⟨æ⟩ and ⟨œ⟩ used in English and French, in which the letters ⟨a⟩ and ⟨e⟩ are joined for the first ligature and the letters ⟨o⟩ and ⟨e⟩ are joined for the second ligature. For stylistic and legibility reasons, ⟨f⟩ and ⟨i⟩ are often merged to create ⟨fi⟩ (where the tittle on the ⟨i⟩ merges with the hood of the ⟨f⟩); the same is true of ⟨s⟩ and ⟨t⟩ to create ⟨st⟩. The common ampersand, ⟨&⟩, developed from a ligature in which the handwritten Latin letters ⟨e⟩ and ⟨t⟩ (spelling et, Latin for 'and') were combined.[1]
History
The earliest known script
Around the 9th and 10th centuries, monasteries became a fountainhead for these type of script modifications. Medieval scribes who wrote in
In handwriting, a ligature is made by joining two or more characters in an atypical fashion by merging their parts, or by writing one above or inside the other. In printing, a ligature is a group of characters that is typeset as a unit, so the characters do not have to be joined. For example, in some cases the ⟨fi⟩ ligature prints the letters ⟨f⟩ and ⟨i⟩ with a greater separation than when they are typeset as separate letters. When printing with movable type was invented around 1450,[4] typefaces included many ligatures and additional letters, as they were based on handwriting. Ligatures made printing with movable type easier because one sort would replace frequent combinations of letters and also allowed more complex and interesting character designs which would otherwise collide with one another.[citation needed]
Because of their complexity, ligatures began to fall out of use in the 20th century. Sans serif typefaces, increasingly used for body text, generally avoid ligatures, though notable exceptions include Gill Sans and Futura. Inexpensive phototypesetting machines in the 1970s (which did not require journeyman knowledge or training to operate) also generally avoid them. A few, however, became characters in their own right, see below the sections about German ß, various Latin accented letters, & et al.
The trend against digraph use was further strengthened by the
Ligatures have grown in popularity in the 21st century because of an increasing interest in creating typesetting systems that evoke arcane designs and classical scripts. One of the first computer typesetting programs to take advantage of computer-driven typesetting (and later laser printers) was Donald Knuth's TeX program. Now the standard method of mathematical typesetting, its default fonts are explicitly based on nineteenth-century styles. Many new fonts feature extensive ligature sets; these include FF Scala, Seria and others by Martin Majoor and Hoefler Text by Jonathan Hoefler. Mrs Eaves by Zuzana Licko contains a particularly large set to allow designers to create dramatic display text with a feel of antiquity. A parallel use of ligatures is seen in the creation of script fonts that join letterforms to simulate handwriting effectively. This trend is caused in part by the increased support for other languages and alphabets in modern computing, many of which use ligatures somewhat extensively. This has caused the development of new digital typesetting techniques such as OpenType, and the incorporation of ligature support into the text display systems of macOS, Windows, and applications like Microsoft Office. An increasing modern trend is to use a "Th" ligature which reduces spacing between these letters to make it easier to read, a trait infrequent in metal type.[6][7][8]
Today, modern font programming divides ligatures into three groups, which can be activated separately: standard, contextual and historical. Standard ligatures are needed to allow the font to display without errors such as character collision. Designers sometimes find contextual and historic ligatures desirable for creating effects or to evoke an old-fashioned print look.[citation needed]
Latin alphabet
Stylistic ligatures
Many ligatures combine ⟨f⟩ with the following letter. A particularly prominent example is ⟨fi⟩ (or ⟨fi⟩, rendered with two normal letters). The tittle of the ⟨i⟩ in many typefaces collides with the hood of the ⟨f⟩ when placed beside each other in a word, and are combined into a single glyph with the tittle absorbed into the ⟨f⟩. Other ligatures with the letter f include ⟨fj⟩,[a] ⟨fl⟩ (fl), ⟨ff⟩ (ff), ⟨ffi⟩ (ffi), and ⟨ffl⟩ (ffl). Ligatures for ⟨fa⟩, ⟨fe⟩, ⟨fo⟩, ⟨fr⟩, ⟨fs⟩, ⟨ft⟩, ⟨fb⟩, ⟨fh⟩, ⟨fu⟩, ⟨fy⟩, and for ⟨f⟩ followed by a full stop, comma, or hyphen are also used, as well as the equivalent set for the doubled ⟨ff⟩.[citation needed]
These arose because with the usual type
Ligatures crossing the morpheme boundary of a composite word are sometimes considered incorrect, especially in official German orthography as outlined in the Duden. An English example of this would be ⟨ff⟩ in shelfful; a German example would be Schifffahrt ("boat trip").[b] Some computer programs (such as TeX) provide a setting to disable ligatures for German, while some users have also written macros to identify which ligatures to disable.[9][10]
Turkish distinguishes dotted and dotless "I". In a ligature with f (in words such as fırın and fikir), this contrast would be obscured. The ⟨fi⟩ ligature is therefore not used in Turkish typography, and neither are other ligatures like that for ⟨fl⟩, which would be rare anyway because of Turkish phonotactics.[citation needed]
Remnants of the ligatures ⟨ſʒ⟩ /⟨ſz⟩ ("sharp s", eszett) and ⟨tʒ⟩/⟨tz⟩ ("sharp t", tezett) from
Sometimes, ligatures for ⟨st⟩ (st), ⟨ſt⟩ (ſt), ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ck⟩, ⟨ct⟩, ⟨Qu⟩ and ⟨Th⟩ are used (e.g. in the typeface Linux Libertine).[citation needed]
Besides conventional ligatures, in the metal type era some newspapers commissioned custom condensed single sorts for the names of common long names that might appear in news headings, such as "
German ß
The
Massachusett ꝏ
A prominent feature of the colonial orthography created by John Eliot (later used in the first Bible printed in the Americas, the Massachusett-language Mamusse Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God, published in 1663) was the use of the double-o ligature ⟨ꝏ⟩ to represent the /u/ of food as opposed to the /ʊ/ of hook (although Eliot himself used ⟨oo⟩ and ⟨ꝏ⟩ interchangeably).[clarification needed] In the orthography in use since 2000 in the Wampanoag communities participating in the Wôpanâak Language Reclamation Project (WLRP), the ligature was replaced with the numeral ⟨8⟩, partly because of its ease in typesetting and display as well as its similarity to the o-u ligature ⟨Ȣ⟩ used in Abenaki. For example, compare the colonial-era spelling seepꝏash[13] with the modern WLRP spelling seep8ash.[14]
Letter W
As the letter ⟨
Æ and Œ
The character ⟨
In modern English orthography, ⟨Æ⟩ is not considered an independent letter but a spelling variant, for example: "encyclopædia" versus "encyclopaedia" or "encyclopedia". In this use, ⟨Æ⟩ comes from Medieval Latin, where it was an optional ligature in some specific words that had been transliterated and borrowed from Ancient Greek, for example, "Æneas". It is still found as a variant in English and French words descended or borrowed from Medieval Latin, but the trend has recently been towards printing the ⟨A⟩ and ⟨E⟩ separately.[15]
Similarly, ⟨Œ⟩ and ⟨œ⟩, while normally printed as ligatures in French, are replaced by component letters if technical restrictions require it.[citation needed]
Umlaut
In
Middle English
In Middle English, the word the (written þe) was frequently abbreviated as a ⟨þ⟩ (
Ring
The .
Tilde and circumflex
The
Hwair
The letter hwair (ƕ), used only in transliteration of the Gothic language, resembles a ⟨hw⟩ ligature. It was introduced by philologists around 1900 to replace the digraph ⟨hv⟩ formerly used to express the phoneme in question, e.g. by Migne in the 1860s (Patrologia Latina vol. 18).
Byzantine Ȣ
The
Gha (OI)
International Phonetic Alphabet
The
]Initial Teaching Alphabet
The Initial Teaching Alphabet, a short-lived alphabet intended for young children, used a number of ligatures to represent long vowels: ⟨ꜷ⟩, ⟨æ⟩, ⟨œ⟩, ⟨ᵫ⟩, ⟨ꭡ⟩, and ligatures for ⟨ee⟩, ⟨ou⟩ and ⟨oi⟩ that are not encoded in Unicode. Ligatures for consonants also existed, including ligatures of ⟨ʃh⟩, ⟨ʈh⟩, ⟨wh⟩, ⟨ʗh⟩, ⟨ng⟩ and a reversed ⟨t⟩ with ⟨h⟩ (neither the reversed t nor any of the consonant ligatures are in Unicode).[citation needed]
Rare ligatures
Rarer ligatures also exist, such as ⟨ꜳ⟩; ⟨ꜵ⟩; ⟨ꜷ⟩; ⟨ꜹ⟩; ⟨ꜻ⟩ (barred ⟨av⟩); ⟨ꜽ⟩; ⟨ꝏ⟩, which is used in medieval
Symbols originating as ligatures
The most common ligature in modern usage is the ampersand ⟨&⟩ . This was originally a ligature of ⟨E⟩ and ⟨t⟩ , forming the Latin word "et", meaning "and". It has exactly the same use in French and in English. The ampersand comes in many different forms. Because of its ubiquity, it is generally no longer considered a ligature, but a logogram. Like many other ligatures, it has at times been considered a letter (e.g., in early Modern English); in English it is pronounced "and", not "et", except in the case of &c, pronounced "et cetera". In most typefaces, it does not immediately resemble the two letters used to form it, although certain typefaces use designs in the form of a ligature (examples include the original versions of Futura and Univers, Trebuchet MS, and Civilité, known in modern times as the italic of Garamond).[citation needed]
Similarly, the
The at sign ⟨@⟩ is potentially a ligature, but there are many different theories about the origin. One theory says that the French word à (meaning at), was simplified by scribes who, instead of lifting the pen to write the grave accent, drew an arc around the "a". Another states that it is short for the Latin word for "toward", "ad", with the ⟨d⟩ being represented by the arc. Another says it is short for an abbreviation of the term each at, with the ⟨e⟩ encasing the ⟨a⟩.[27] Around the 18th century, it started being used in commerce to indicate price per unit, as "15 units @ $1".[28] After the popularization of Email, this fairly unpopular character became widely known, used to tag specific users.[29]
The dollar sign ⟨$⟩ possibly originated as a ligature (for "pesos", although there are other theories as well) but is now a logogram.[30] At least once, the United States dollar used a symbol resembling an overlapping U-S ligature, with the right vertical bar of the U intersecting through the middle of the S ( US ) to resemble the modern dollar sign.[31]
The Spanish peseta was sometimes symbolized by a ligature ⟨₧⟩ (from Pts), and the French franc was often symbolized by the ligature ⟨₣⟩ (from Fr).[citation needed]
In
A different PL ligature, ⅊, represents the
In engineering diagrams, a CL ligature, ℄, represents the center line of an object.[citation needed]
The interrobang ⟨‽⟩ is an unconventional punctuation meant to combine the interrogation point (or the question mark) and the bang (printer's slang for exclamation mark) into one symbol, used to denote a sentence which is both a question and is exclaimed. For example, the sentence "Are you really coming over to my house on Friday‽" shows that the speaker is surprised while asking their question.[35]
Digraphs
Digraphs, such as ⟨ll⟩ in Spanish or Welsh, are not ligatures in the general case as the two letters are displayed as separate glyphs: although written together, when they are joined in handwriting or italic fonts the base form of the letters is not changed and the individual glyphs remain separate. Like some ligatures discussed above, these digraphs may or may not be considered individual letters in their respective languages. Until the 1994 spelling reform, the digraphs ⟨ch⟩ and ⟨ll⟩ were considered separate letters in Spanish for collation purposes. Catalan makes a difference between "Spanish ll" or palatalized l, written ll as in llei (law), and "French ll" or geminated l, written l·l as in col·lega (colleague).[citation needed]
The difference can be illustrated with the French digraph ]
Dutch IJ
In
Non-Latin alphabets
Ligatures are not limited to Latin script:
- The Armenian alphabet has the following ligatures: և (ե+ւ), ﬔ (մ+ե), ﬕ (մ+ի), ﬓ (մ+ն), ﬗ (մ+խ), ﬖ (վ+ն)
- The Brahmic abugidas make frequent use of ligatures in consonant clusters. The number of ligatures employed is language-dependent; thus many more ligatures are conventionally used in Devanagari when writing Sanskrit than when writing Hindi. Having 37 consonants in total, the total number of ligatures that can be formed in Devanagari using only two letters is 1369, though few fonts are able to render all of them. In particular, Mangal, which is included with Microsoft Windows' Indic support, does not correctly handle ligatures with consonants attached to the right of the characters द, ट, ठ, ड, and ढ, leaving the viramaattached to them and displaying the following consonant in its standard form.
- The ჳ(vie).
- A number of ligatures have been employed in the Ou (letter). Among the ancient Greek acrophonic numerals, ligatures were common (in fact, the ligature of a short-legged capital piwas a key feature of the acrophonic numeral system).
- Cyrillic ligatures: (Ꚅꚅ ← З + Ж).
- Some forms of the Glagoliticscript, used from Middle Ages to the 19th century to write some Slavic languages, have a box-like shape that lends itself to more frequent use of ligatures.
- In the lamed, in the Hebrew script) is the definite article in Arabic. For example, the word Allah(אַללַּהּ) can be written with this ligature: ﭏלה.
- In the lām + ʼalifisolated: ﻻ, and lām + ʼalif medial or final: ﻼ. Besides the obligatory lām + ʼalif ligature, Arabic script grammar requires numerous stylistic ligatures.
- Serto, being a flexible script, especially has many ligatures. For a wider, but not complete, list of Syriac ligatures, see Contextual forms of letters.
- Nastaʿlīq script, requires a great number of ligatures in digital typography. InPage, a widely used desktop publishing tool for Urdu, uses Nastaliqfonts with over 20,000 ligatures.
- In initialismILY. It consists of the little finger of the letter I plus the thumb and forefinger of the letter L. The letter Y (little finger and thumb) overlaps with the other two letters.
- The Japanese language has a number of obsolete kana ligatures. Of these, only two are widely available ones on computers: one for hiragana, ゟ, which is a vertical writing ligature of the characters よ and り; and one for katakana, ヿ, which is a vertical writing ligature of the characters コ and ト.
- Lao uses three ligatures, all comprising the letter ຫ (h). As a tonal language, most consonant sounds in Lao are represented by two consonants, which will govern the tone of the syllable. Five consonant sounds are only represented by a single consonant letter (ງ (ŋ), ນ (m), ມ (n), ລ (l), ວ (w)), meaning that one cannot render all the tones for words beginning with these sounds. A silent ຫ indicates that the syllable should be read with the tone rules for ຫ, rather than those of the following consonant. Three consonants can form ligatures with the letter ຫ. ຫ+ນ=ໜ (n), ຫ+ມ=ໝ (m) and ຫ+ລ=ຫຼ (l). ງ (ŋ) and ວ (w) just form clusters: ຫງ (ŋ) and ຫວ (w). ລ (l) can also be used written in a cluster rather than as a ligature: ຫລ (l).
- In many runic texts ligatures are common. Such ligatures are known as bind-runes and were optional.
Chinese ligatures
One popular ligature used on
In 1924, Du Dingyou (杜定友; 1898–1967) created the ligature 圕 from two of the three characters 圖書館 (túshūguǎn), meaning "library".[37] Although it does have an assigned pronunciation of tuān and appears in many dictionaries, it is not a morpheme and cannot be used as such in Chinese. Instead, it is usually considered a graphic representation of túshūguǎn.
In recent years, a Chinese internet meme, the Grass Mud Horse, has had such a ligature associated with it combining the three relevant Chinese characters 草, 泥, and 马 (Cǎonímǎ).
Similar to the ligatures were several "two-syllable Chinese characters" (
Computer typesetting
The OpenType font format includes features for associating multiple glyphs to a single character, used for ligature substitution. Typesetting software may or may not implement this feature, even if it is explicitly present in the font's metadata. XeTeX is a TeX typesetting engine designed to make the most of such advanced features. This type of substitution used to be needed mainly for typesetting Arabic texts, but ligature lookups and substitutions are being put into all kinds of Western Latin OpenType fonts. In OpenType, there are standard liga
, historical hlig
, contextual clig
, discretionary dlig
and required rlig
ligatures.
TeX
Opinion is divided over whether it is the job of writers or typesetters to decide where to use ligatures. TeX is an example of a computer typesetting system that makes use of ligatures automatically. The Computer Modern Roman typeface provided with TeX includes the five common ligatures ⟨ff⟩ , ⟨fi⟩ , ⟨fl⟩ , ⟨ffi⟩ , and ⟨ffl⟩ . When TeX finds these combinations in a text, it substitutes the appropriate ligature, unless overridden by the typesetter.
CSS
font-feature-settings
,[39] though the CSS Fonts Module Level 4 draft standard indicates that authors should prefer several other properties.[40] Those include font-variant-ligatures
, common-ligatures
, discretionary-ligatures
, historical-ligatures
, and contextual
.[41]Ligatures in Unicode (Latin alphabets)
This table below shows discrete letter pairs on the left, the corresponding Unicode ligature in the middle column, and the Unicode code point on the right. Provided you are using an operating system and browser that can handle Unicode, and have the correct Unicode fonts installed, some or all of these will display correctly. See also the provided graphic.
Microsoft Word disables ligature substitution by default, largely for backward compatibility when editing documents created in earlier versions of Word. Users can enable automatic ligature substitution on the Advanced tab of the Font dialog box.
LibreOffice Writer enables standard ligature substitution by default for OpenType fonts, user can enable or disable any ligature substitution on the Features dialog box, which is accessible via the Features button of the Character dialog box, or alternatively, input a syntax with font name and feature into the Font Name input box, for example: Noto Sans:liga=0.
Non-ligature | Ligature[42] | Unicode | HTML |
---|---|---|---|
AA, aa | Ꜳ, ꜳ[21] | U+A732, U+A733 | Ꜳ ꜳ |
AE, ae | Æ, æ | U+00C6, U+00E6 | Æ æ |
AO, ao | Ꜵ, ꜵ[21] | U+A734, U+A735 | Ꜵ ꜵ |
AU, au | Ꜷ, ꜷ[21] | U+A736, U+A737 | Ꜷ ꜷ |
AV, av | Ꜹ, ꜹ[21] | U+A738, U+A739 | Ꜹ ꜹ |
AV, av (with bar) | Ꜻ, ꜻ[21] | U+A73A, U+A73B | Ꜻ ꜻ |
AY, ay | Ꜽ, ꜽ[21] | U+A73C, U+A73D | Ꜽ ꜽ |
et | 🙰 | U+1F670 | 🙰 |
ff | ff | U+FB00 | ff |
ffi | ffi | U+FB03 | ffi |
ffl | ffl | U+FB04 | ffl |
fi | fi | U+FB01 | fi |
fl | fl | U+FB02 | fl |
Hv, hv | Ƕ, ƕ | U+01F6, U+0195 | Ƕ ƕ |
lb | ℔ | U+2114 | ℔ ℔ |
lL, ll | Ỻ, ỻ | U+1EFA, U+1EFB | Ỻ ỻ |
OE, oe | Œ, œ | U+0152, U+0153 | Œ œ |
OO, oo | Ꝏ, ꝏ[21] | U+A74E, U+A74F | Ꝏ ꝏ |
ɔe | ꭢ | U+AB62 | ꭢ |
ſs, ſz | ẞ, ß
|
U+1E9E, U+00DF | ß |
st | st | U+FB06 | st |
ſt | ſt | U+FB05 | ſt |
TZ, tz | Ꜩ, ꜩ | U+A728, U+A729 | Ꜩ ꜩ |
ue | ᵫ | U+1D6B | ᵫ |
uo | ꭣ[43] | U+AB63 | ꭣ |
VV, vv | W, w | U+0057, U+0077 | W w |
VY, vy | Ꝡ, ꝡ[21] | U+A760, U+A761 | Ꝡ ꝡ |
ſs | Ꟗ ꟗ | U+A7D6, U+A7D7 | ꟗ ꟗ |
ƿƿ | ꟕ | U+A7D5 | ꟕ ꟕ |
þþ | ꟓ | U+A7D3 | ꟓ ꟓ |
There are separate
Ligatures used only in phonetic transcription
Ligature[42] | Unicode | HTML | |
---|---|---|---|
superscript small capital AA | 𐞀[44][45] | U+10780 | 𐞀 |
superscript ae | 𐞃[46] | U+10783 | 𐞃 |
aə | ꬱ[43] | U+AB31 | ꬱ |
əø | ꭁ | U+AB41 | ꭁ |
db[c] | ȸ
|
U+0238 | ȸ |
dz | ʣ
|
U+02A3 | ʣ |
dʐ | ꭦ[47] | U+AB66 | ꭦ |
dʑ (or dz curl) | ʥ
|
U+02A5 | ʥ |
dʒ (or dezh) | ʤ
|
U+02A4 | ʤ |
dʒ with palatal hook | 𝼒[48][45] | U+1DF12 | 𝼒 |
dʒ with retroflex hook | 𝼙[49] | U+1DF19 | 𝼙 |
fŋ (or feng) | ʩ
|
U+02A9 | ʩ |
Superscript fŋ | U+10790 | 𐞐 | |
fŋ with trill | U+1DF00 | 𝼀 | |
ls (or less) | ʪ
|
U+02AA | ʪ |
superscript ls | U+10799 | 𐞙 | |
lz | ʫ
|
U+02AB | ʫ |
superscript lz | U+1079A | 𐞚 | |
lʒ (or lezh) | ɮ
|
U+026E | ɮ |
superscript lʒ | 𐞞[44]
|
U+1079E | 𐞞 |
lʒ with retroflex hook | U+1DF05 | 𝼅 | |
superscript lʒ with retroflex hook | 𐞟[44]
|
U+1079F | 𐞟 |
oə | ꭀ | U+AB40 | ꭀ |
qp[c] | ȹ
|
U+0239 | ȹ |
tɕ (or tc curl) | ʨ
|
U+02A8 | ʨ |
superscript tɕ | 𐞫[46]
|
U+107AB | 𐞫 |
ts (or tess) | ʦ
|
U+02A6 | ʦ |
superscript ts | 𐞬[46]
|
U+107AC | 𐞬 |
ts with retroflex hook | ꭧ
|
U+AB67 | ꭧ |
superscript ts with retroflex hook | 𐞭[46]
|
U+107AD | 𐞭 |
tʂ | ꭧ[47] | U+AB67 | ꭧ |
tʃ (or tesh) | ʧ
|
U+02A7 | ʧ |
superscript tʃ | 𐞮[46]
|
U+107AE | 𐞮 |
tʃ with retroflex hook | 𝼜[49] | U+1DF1C | 𝼜 |
tʃ with palatal hook | 𝼗[48][45] | U+1DF17 | 𝼗 |
ui | ꭐ[51] | U+AB50 | ꭐ |
turned ui | ꭑ[51] | U+AB51 | ꭑ |
uu | ɯ | U+026F | ɯ |
Four "ligature ornaments" are included from U+1F670 to U+1F673 in the Ornamental Dingbats block: regular and bold variants of ℯT (script e and T) and of ɛT (open E and T).
Contemporary art
Typographic ligatures are used in a form of contemporary art,[52] as can be illustrated by Chinese artist Xu Bing's work in which he combines Latin letters to form characters that resemble Chinese.[53] Croatian designer Maja Škripelj also created a ligature that combined Glagolitic letters ⰘⰓ for euro coins.[54]
See also
- Complex text layout – Neighbour-dependent grapheme positioning
- Kerning – Process in typography
- Letter spacing – Physical spacing of characters in text
- List of English words that may be spelled with a ligature – Spelling rule in English
- Monogram – Motif made by overlapping two or more letters
- Scribal abbreviation – Abbreviations used by ancient and medieval scribes
- Unicode equivalence – Aspect of the Unicode Standard
- Greek ligatures – Ligatures used in Greek writing
Notes
References
- ^ "What is the origin of the ampersand (&)?"
- ^ Capelli – Dizionario di abbreviature latine ed italiane
- ^ Medieval Unicode Font Initiative
- ^ Bellis, Mary (17 April 2017). "Johannes Gutenberg and the Printing Press". ThoughtCo.
- ^ Frere-Jones, Tobias. "Hoefler Text". Hoefler & Frere-Jones. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
- ^ Shaw, Paul (12 May 2011). "Flawed Typefaces". Print magazine. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
- ^ Ulrich, Ferdinand (22 July 2012). "Hunt Roman". Typographica. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
- ^ Shaw, Paul (31 October 2011). "The Kerning Game". Print. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
- ISBN 0-201-39825-7.
- ^ Loretan, Mico. "Selnolig". CTAN. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
- ^ Dunlap, David (23 June 2016). "1952 – 'Eisenhower,' a True Campaign Logo". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 August 2017.
- ^ Ständiger Ausschuss für geographische Namen (StAGN) Empfehlungen und Hinweise für die Schreibweise geographischer Namen für Herausgeber von Kartenwerken und anderen Veröffentlichungen für den internationalen Gebrauch Bundesrepublik Deutschland 5. überarbeitete Ausgabe
- ^ Trumbull, J. H. (1903). Natick Dictionary. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. p. 149.
- ^ Fermino, J. L. D. (2000). Introduction to the wampanoag grammar. (Master's thesis). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. p. 48.
- ISBN 9780226103891.
- ISBN 9780367581565.
The types used by Caxton and his contemporaries originated in Holland and Belgium, and did not provide for the continuing use of elements of the Old English alphabet such as thorn <þ>, eth <ð>, and yogh <ʒ>. The substitution of visually similar typographic forms has led to some anomalies which persist to this day in the reprinting of archaic texts and the spelling of regional words. The widely misunderstood 'ye' occurs through a habit of printer's usage that originates in Caxton's time, when printers would substitute the <y> (often accompanied by a superscript <e>) in place of the thorn <þ> or the eth <ð>, both of which were used to denote both the voiced and non-voiced sounds, /ð/ and /θ/ (Anderson, D. (1969) The Art of Written Forms. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, p 169)
- ^ Nordisk familjebok / Uggleupplagan. 33. Väderlek – Äänekoski / 905–906
- ^ "Bureus, J., Runa ABC boken". Archived from the original on 2010-01-24. Retrieved 2010-02-05.
- ^ "Origen de la 'Ñ' Archived 2018-08-14 at the Wayback Machine", Aula Hispanica.
- ^ Teach Yourself French. Collier's Cyclopedia, 1901.
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- ^ Everson, Michael; Dicklberger, Alois; Pentzlin, Karl; Wandl-Vogt, Eveline (2011-06-02). "Revised proposal to encode "Teuthonista" phonetic characters in the UCS" (PDF).
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The Italian libbra (from the old Latin word libra, 'balance') represented a weight almost exactly equal to the avoirdupois pound of England. The Italian abbreviation of lb with a line drawn across the letters was used for both weights.
- ^ Houston, Keith (2013-09-06). "The Ancient Roots of Punctuation". The New Yorker. Retrieved 16 October 2013.
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# ..... number (written before a figure.)
- ISBN 9780393064421.
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- ISBN 0-486-67766-4. – contains section on the history of the dollar sign, with much documentary evidence supporting the theory that $ began as a ligature for "pesos".
- ^ Reverse of $1 United States Note (Greenback), series of 1869
- ^ ISBN 9780871692337. Archivedfrom the original on 30 April 2021. Retrieved 28 September 2021.
- ^ that ♂ represents the shield and spear of Mars and ♀ Venus's looking-glass. All the evidence favours the conclusion of the French classical scholar Claude de Saumaise (Salmasius, 1588–1653) that these symbols, as also those for Saturn, Mercury and Jupiter, are derived from contractions in Greek script of the Greek names of the planets which are Kronos (Saturn), Zeus (Jupiter), Thouros (Mars), Phosphoros (Venus) and Stilbon (Mercury). As observed by Linnaeus's one-time student Johann Beckmann in his History of Inventions (English transl., 1797), to understand their origin 'we must make ourselves acquainted with the oldest form of these characters which in all probability, like those used in writing, were subjected to many changes before they acquired that form which they have at present'.
- Bibcode:1934Obs....57..238M.
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- ^ a b "Latin Extended-E" (PDF). Unicode Consortium.
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- ^ a b Everson, Michael (2017-08-17). "L2/17-299 Proposal to add two Sinological Latin letters" (PDF).
- ^ a b Miller, Kirk (2020-07-11). "L2/20-125R: Unicode request for expected IPA retroflex letters and similar letters with hooks" (PDF).
- ^ a b Miller, Kirk; Everson, Michael (2021-01-03), L2/21-004: Unicode request for dezh with retroflex hook (PDF)
- ^ Freytag, Asmus; McGowan, Rick; Whistler, Ken (2006-05-08). "Known Anomalies in Unicode Character Names". Unicode Technical Note #27. Unicode Inc. Retrieved 2009-05-29.
- ^ a b Everson, Michael; Dicklberger, Alois; Pentzlin, Karl; Wandl-Vogt, Eveline (2011-06-02). "L2/11-202: Revised proposal to encode 'Teuthonista' phonetic characters in the UCS" (PDF).
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- ISBN 9780295981437.
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