Light rail
Light rail transit (LRT) is a form of passenger urban rail transit characterized by a combination of tram and rapid transit features. While its rolling stock is similar to that of a traditional tram, it operates at a higher capacity and speed and often on an exclusive right-of-way. In many cities, light rail transit systems more closely resemble, and are therefore indistinguishable from, traditional underground or at-grade subways and heavy-rail metros.
There is no standard definition, but in the United States (where the terminology was devised in the 1970s from the engineering term light railway), light rail operates primarily along exclusive rights-of-way and uses either individual tramcars or multiple units coupled to form a train that has a lower capacity and speed than a long
A few light rail networks tend to have characteristics closer to rapid transit or even commuter rail; some of these heavier rapid transit-like systems are referred to as light metros. Other light rail networks are tram-like and partially operate on streets.
History
The world's first electric tram line operated in
Postwar
Many original tram and
Revival
Although some traditional trolley or tram systems continued to exist in
A contemporary definition of light rail was proposed by American transport planner H. Dean Quinby in 1962. Quinby distinguished this new concept in rail transportation from historic streetcar or tram systems as:[11]
- having the capacity to carry more passengers
- appearing like a train, with more than one car connected
- having more doors to facilitate full utilization of the space
- faster and quieter in operation
The term light rail transit was introduced in North America in 1972 to describe this new concept of rail transportation.[12] Prior to that time the abbreviation "LRT" was used for "Light Rapid Transit" and "Light Rail Rapid Transit".[13]
The first of the new light rail systems in North America began operation in 1978 when the Canadian city of
Britain began replacing its run-down local railways with light rail in the 1980s, starting with the Tyne and Wear Metro and followed by the Docklands Light Railway (DLR) in London. The historic term light railway was used because it dated from the British Light Railways Act 1896, although the technology used in the DLR system was at the high end of what Americans considered to be light rail. The trend to light rail in the United Kingdom was firmly established with the success of the Manchester Metrolink system, which opened in 1992.
Definition
Part of a series on |
Rail transport |
---|
|
Infrastructure |
|
Service and rolling stock |
|
Special systems |
|
Miscellanea |
Transport portal |
The term light rail was coined in 1972 by the U.S. Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA; the precursor to the Federal Transit Administration) to describe new streetcar transformations that were taking place in Europe and the United States. In Germany, the term Stadtbahn (to be distinguished from S-Bahn, which stands for Stadtschnellbahn) was used to describe the concept, and many in UMTA wanted to adopt the direct translation, which is city rail (the Norwegian term, by bane, means the same). However, UMTA finally adopted the term light rail instead.[14] Light in this context is used in the sense of "intended for light loads and fast movement", rather than referring to physical weight. The infrastructure investment is also usually lighter than would be found for a heavy rail system.
The Transportation Research Board (Transportation Systems Center) defined "light rail" in 1977 as "a mode of urban transportation utilizing predominantly reserved but not necessarily grade-separated rights-of-way. Electrically propelled rail vehicles operate singly or in trains. LRT provides a wide range of passenger capabilities and performance characteristics at moderate costs."
The American Public Transportation Association (APTA), in its Glossary of Transit Terminology, defines light rail as:
...a mode of transit service (also called streetcar, tramway, or trolley) operating passenger rail cars singly (or in short, usually two-car or three-car, trains) on fixed rails in the right-of-way that is often separated from other traffic for part or much of the way. Light rail vehicles are typically driven electrically with power being drawn from an overhead electric line via a
pantograph; driven by an operator onboard the vehicle; and may have either high platform loading or low-level boarding using steps."[1]
However, some diesel-powered transit is designated light rail, such as the O-Train Trillium Line in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, the River Line in New Jersey, United States, and the Sprinter in California, United States, which use diesel multiple unit (DMU) cars.
Light rail is similar to the British English term light railway, long-used to distinguish railway operations carried out under a less rigorous set of regulations using lighter equipment at lower speeds from mainline railways. Light rail is a generic international English phrase for types of rail systems using modern streetcars/trams, which means more or less the same thing throughout the English-speaking world.
People movers and personal rapid transit are even "lighter", at least in terms of capacity. Monorail is a separate technology that has been more successful in specialized services than in a commuter transit role.
British English versus American English
The use of the generic term light rail avoids some serious incompatibilities between
The difference between British English and American English terminology arose in the late 19th century when Americans adopted the term "street railway", rather than "tramway", with the vehicles being called "streetcars" rather than "trams". Some have suggested that the Americans' preference for the term "street railway" at that time was influenced by German emigrants to the United States
The opposite phrase heavy rail, used for higher-capacity, higher-speed systems, also avoids some incompatibilities in terminology between British and American English, for instance in comparing the London Underground and the New York City Subway. Conventional rail technologies including high-speed, freight, commuter, and rapid transit urban transit systems are considered "heavy rail". The main difference between light rail and heavy rail rapid transit is the ability for a light rail vehicle to operate in mixed traffic if the routing requires it.[21]
Types
Due to varying definitions, it is hard to distinguish between what is called light rail, and other forms of urban and commuter rail. A system described as a light rail in one city may be considered to be a streetcar or tram system in another. Conversely, some lines that are called "light rail" are very similar to
There is a significant difference in cost between these different classes of light rail transit. Tram-like systems are often less expensive than metro-like systems by a factor of two or more.
Lower capacity
The most difficult distinction to draw is that between light rail and streetcar or tram systems. There is a significant amount of overlap between the technologies, many of the same vehicles can be used for either, and it is common to classify streetcars or trams as a subcategory of light rail rather than as a distinct type of transportation. The two general versions are:
- The traditional type, where tracks and trains run along the streets and share space with road traffic. Stops tend to be very frequent, but little effort is made to set up special stations. Because space is shared, the tracks are usually visually unobtrusive.
- A more modern variation, where the trains tend to run along with their own right-of-way, separated from road traffic. Stops are generally less frequent, and the vehicles are often boarded from a platform. Tracks are highly visible, and in some cases, significant effort is expended to keep traffic away through the use of special signaling, level crossings with gate arms, or even a complete separation (semi-metro) with non-level crossings.
Higher capacity
At the highest degree of separation, it can be difficult to draw the line between light rail and
Mixed systems
Many systems have mixed characteristics. Indeed, with proper engineering, a rail line could run along a street, then go underground, and then run along an elevated viaduct. For example, the Los Angeles Metro Rail's A Line "light rail" has sections that could alternatively be described as a tramway, a light metro, and, in a narrow sense, rapid transit. This is especially common in the United States, where there is not a popularly perceived distinction between these different types of urban rail systems. The development of technology for low-floor and catenary-free trams facilitates the construction of such mixed systems with only short and shallow underground sections below critical intersections as the required clearance height can be reduced significantly compared to conventional light rail vehicles.[22]
It is even possible to have high-floor rapid transit cars run along a street, like a tram; this is known as
Speed and stop frequency
In some areas, "light rail" may also refer to any rail line with frequent low speeds or many stops in a short distance. This inherits the old definition of light railway in the UK. Hong Kong's Light Rail is an example of this,[citation needed] although it is also called "light rail" because it is a lower-scale system than the rest of the MTR. Sprinter in the San Diego area uses DMUs and is targeted towards a commuter rail audience; however, because of the large number of stops along the line, it is called the light rail.
Reference speed from major light rail systems, including station stop time, is shown below.[23]
System | Average speed (mph) | Average speed (kph) |
---|---|---|
Baltimore | 24 | 39 |
Dallas (Red Line) | 21 | 34 |
Dallas (Blue Line) | 19 | 31 |
Denver (Alameda-Littleton) | 38 | 61 |
Denver (Downtown-Littleton) | 26 | 42 |
Los Angeles (Blue Line) | 24 | 39 |
Los Angeles (Green Line) | 38 | 61 |
Salt Lake City | 24 | 39 |
However, low top speed is not always a differentiating characteristic between light rail and other systems. For example, the
System-wide considerations
Many light rail systems—even fairly old ones—have a combination of both on- and off-road sections. In some countries (especially in Europe), only the latter is described as light rail. In those places, trams running on mixed rights-of-way are not regarded as a light rail but considered distinctly as streetcars or trams. However, the requirement for saying that a rail line is "separated" can be quite low—sometimes just with concrete "buttons" to discourage automobile drivers from getting onto the tracks. Some systems such as Seattle's Link had on-road mixed sections but were closed to regular road traffic, with light rail vehicles and traditional buses both operating along a common right-of-way (however, Link converted to full separation in 2019).
Some systems, such as the
Track gauge
Historically, the
Capacity
Efficiency
Comparison with high capacity roads
One line of light rail (requires 7.6 m, 25' right of way) has a theoretical capacity of up to 8 times more than one 3.7 m (12 foot) lane on a freeway, excluding busses, during peak times. Roads have ultimate capacity limits that can be determined by
By contrast, light rail vehicles can travel in multi-car trains carrying a theoretical ridership up to 20,000 passengers per hour in much narrower
Practical considerations
Most light rail systems in the United States are limited by demand rather than capacity (by and large, most American LRT systems carry fewer than 4,000 persons per hour per direction), but Boston's and San Francisco's light rail lines carry 9,600 and 13,100 passengers per hour per track during rush hour.
Bus rapid transit (BRT) is an alternative to LRT and many planning studies undertake a comparison of each mode when considering appropriate investments in transit corridor development. BRT systems can exhibit a more diverse range of design characteristics than LRT, depending on the demand and constraints that exist, and BRT using dedicated lanes can have a theoretical capacity of over 30,000 passengers per hour per direction (for example, the Guangzhou Bus Rapid Transit system operates up to 350 buses per hour per direction). For the effective operation of a bus or BRT system, buses must have priority at traffic lights and have their dedicated lanes, especially as bus frequencies exceed 30 buses per hour per direction. The higher theoretical of BRT relates to the ability of buses to travel closer to each other than rail vehicles and their ability to overtake each other at designated locations allowing express services to bypass those that have stopped at stations. However, to achieve capacities this high, BRT station footprints need to be significantly larger than a typical LRT station. In terms of cost of operation, each bus vehicle requires a single driver, whereas a light rail train may have three to four cars of much larger capacity in one train under the control of one driver, or no driver at all in fully automated systems, increasing the labor costs of BRT systems compared to LRT systems. BRT systems are also usually less fuel-efficient as they use non-electrified vehicles.
The peak passenger capacity per lane per hour depends on which types of vehicles are allowed on the roads. Typically roadways have 1,900 passenger cars per lane per hour (pcplph).[35] If only cars are allowed, the capacity will be less and will not increase when the traffic volume increases.
When there is a bus driving on this route, the capacity of the lane will be higher and will increase when the traffic level increases. And because the capacity of a light rail system is higher than that of a bus, there will be even more capacity when there is a combination of cars and light rail. Table 3 shows an example of peak passenger capacity.
Car | Car + bus | Car + light rail | |
---|---|---|---|
Low volume | 900 | 1,650 | 2,250 |
Medium volume | 900 | 2,350 | 3,250 |
High volume | 900 | 3,400 | 4,600 |
Source: Edson & Tennyson, 2003[full citation needed] |
Safety
An analysis of data from the 505-page National Transportation Statistics report[36] published by the US Department of Transportation shows that light rail fatalities are higher than all other forms of transportation except motorcycle travel (31.5 fatalities per 100 million miles).[37]
However, the National Transportation Statistics report published by the US Department of Transportation states that:[36]
Caution must be exercised in comparing fatalities across modes because significantly different definitions are used. In particular, Rail and Transit fatalities include incident-related (as distinct from accident-related) fatalities, such as fatalities from falls in transit stations or railroad employee fatalities from a fire in a workshed. Equivalent fatalities for the Air and Highway modes (fatalities at airports not caused by moving aircraft or fatalities from accidents in automobile repair shops) are not counted toward the totals for these modes. Thus, fatalities not necessarily directly related to in-service transportation are counted for the transit and rail modes, potentially overstating the risk for these modes.
Construction and operation costs
The cost of light rail construction varies widely, largely depending on the amount of tunneling and elevated structures required. A survey of North American light rail projects
By comparison, a freeway lane expansion typically costs $1.0 million to $8.5 million per lane mile for two directions, with an average of $2.3 million.[40] However, freeways are frequently built in suburbs or rural areas, whereas light rail tends to be concentrated in urban areas, where right of way and property acquisition is expensive. Similarly, the most expensive US highway expansion project was the "Big Dig" in Boston, Massachusetts, which cost $200 million per lane mile for a total cost of $14.6 billion. A light rail track can carry up to 20,000 people per hour as compared with 2,000–2,200 vehicles per hour for one freeway lane.[41] For example, in Boston and San Francisco, light rail lines carry 9,600 and 13,100 passengers per hour, respectively, in the peak direction during rush hour.[33]
Combining highway expansion with LRT construction can save costs by doing both highway improvements and rail construction at the same time. As an example, Denver's Transportation Expansion Project rebuilt interstate highways 25 and 225 and added a light rail expansion for a total cost of $1.67 billion over five years.[42] The cost of 17 miles (27 km) of highway improvements and 19 miles (31 km) of double-track light rail worked out to $19.3 million per highway lane-mile and $27.6 million per LRT track-mile. The project came in under budget and 22 months ahead of schedule.[43]
LRT cost efficiency improves dramatically as ridership increases, as can be seen from the numbers above: the same rail line, with similar capital and operating costs, is far more efficient if it is carrying 20,000 people per hour than if it is carrying 2,400. The
However, Calgary's LRT ridership is much higher than any comparable US light rail system, at 300,000 passengers per weekday, and as a result, its capital efficiency is also much higher. Its capital costs were one-third those of the San Diego Trolley, a comparably sized US system built at the same time, while by 2009 its ridership was approximately three times as high. Thus, Calgary's capital cost per passenger was much lower than that of San Diego. Its operating cost per passenger was also much lower because of its higher ridership. A typical C-Train vehicle costs only CA$163 (equivalent to $212 in 2021) per hour to operate, and since it averages 600 passengers per operating hour,[45] Calgary Transit estimates that its LRT operating costs are only 27 cents per ride, versus $1.50 per ride on its buses.[44]
Compared to buses, costs can be lower due to lower labor costs per passenger mile, higher ridership (observations show that light rail attracts more ridership than a comparable bus service)[46] and faster average speed (reducing the number of vehicles needed for the same service frequency). While light rail vehicles are more expensive to buy, they have a longer useful life than buses, sometimes making for lower life-cycle costs. Compared to heavy rail investment costs are lower, however operating costs are higher than heavy rail.[47]
Health impact
Integration with bicycles
Light rail lines have various policies on bicycles.
Variations
Trams operating on mainline railways
Around Karlsruhe, Kassel, and Saarbrücken in Germany, dual-voltage light rail trains partly use mainline railroad tracks, sharing these tracks with heavy rail trains. In the Netherlands, this concept was first applied on the RijnGouweLijn. This allows commuters to ride directly into the city center, rather than taking a mainline train only as far as a central station and then having to change to a tram. In France, similar tram-trains are planned for Paris, Mulhouse, and Strasbourg; further projects exist. In some cases, tram trains use previously abandoned or lightly used heavy rail lines in addition to or instead of still in use mainline tracks. In 2022, Spain opened the Cádiz TramBahia, where trams share track with commuter and long-distance trains from the main terminus in the city and curve off to serve cities without a railway connection.
Some of the issues involved in such schemes are:
- compatibility of the safety systems
- power supply of the track to the power used by the vehicles (frequently different voltages, rarely third rail vs overhead wires)
- width of the vehicles to the position of the platforms
- height of the platforms
There is a history of what would now be considered light rail vehicles operating on heavy rail
Ground-level power supply for trams
When electric streetcars were introduced in the late 19th century,
In the French city of
Comparison to other rail transit modes
With its mix of right-of-way types and train control technologies, LRT offers the widest range of latitude of any rail system in the design, engineering, and operating practices. The challenge in designing light rail systems is to realize the potential of LRT to provide fast, comfortable service while avoiding the tendency to overdesign that results in excessive capital costs beyond what is necessary to meet the public's needs.[55]
Alternative | Differences |
---|---|
Rapid transit | Light rail vehicles (LRVs) are distinguished from grade-separated subway and elevated segments that would be required with RRT.
|
Streetcars or trams | Conversely, LRVs generally outperform traditional streetcars in terms of capacity and top-end speed, and almost all modern LRVs are capable of multiple-unit operation. The latest generation of LRVs is considerably larger and faster, typically 29 metres (95 ft 1+3⁄4 in) long with a maximum speed of around 105 kilometres per hour (65.2 mph).[56]
|
Heritage streetcars | A variation considered by many cities is to use historic or replica cars on their streetcar systems instead of modern LRVs. A heritage streetcar may not have the capacity and speed of an LRV, but it will add to the ambiance and historic character of its location. |
Light metro
|
A derivative of LRT is light rail rapid transit (LRRT), also referred to as light metro. Such railways are characterized by exclusive rights of way, advanced train control systems, short headway capability, and floor-level boarding. These systems approach the passenger capacity of full metro systems but can be cheaper to construct due to LRVs generally being smaller in size, turning tighter curves and climbing steeper grades than standard RRT vehicles, and having a smaller station size. |
Interurbans | The term interurban mainly refers to rail cars that run through streets like ordinary streetcars (trams), but also between cities or towns, often through rural environments. In the period 1900–1930, interurbans were very common in the US, especially in the Midwest. Some of them, like the Red Devils, the J. G. Brill Bullets, and the Electroliners, were the high-speed railcars of their time, with an in-service speed of up to about 145 km/h (90 mph). In Europe, interurbans are making a comeback as "tram-trains" (locally known under different names) that operate on both the railway and light rail tracks, often with different voltages. The Karlsruhe Stadtbahn is one well-known example.
|
Typical rolling stock
The
Type | Rapid transit (heavy rail) | Light rail | Tram, or streetcar | Heritage streetcar |
---|---|---|---|---|
Manufacturer | Rohr | Siemens | Skoda | Gomaco Trolley Co. |
Model | BART A-Car | S70 |
10T | Replica Birney |
Width | 3.2 metres (10 ft 6 in) | 2.7 metres (8 ft 10+1⁄4 in) | 2.6 metres (8 ft 6+3⁄8 in) | 2.62 metres (8 ft 7+1⁄8 in) |
Length | 22.9 metres (75 ft 1+5⁄8 in) | 27.7 metres (90 ft 10+1⁄2 in) articulated |
20.13 metres (66 ft 1⁄2 in) articulated | 15.16 metres (49 ft 8+7⁄8 in) |
Weight (empty) | 63.1 t | 48.6 t[57] | 28.8 t | 23.5 t[58] |
Capacity | 150 max. | 72 seats, 220 max.[57] | 30 seats, 157 max. | 40 seats, 50 max.[58] |
Top speed | 125 km/h (77.7 mph) | 106 km/h (65.9 mph) | 70 km/h (43.5 mph) | 48 km/h (29.8 mph) |
Typical consist | 4–10 vehicles | 2–5 vehicles | 1 vehicle | 1 vehicle |
Train operation
An important factor crucial to LRT is the train operator. Unlike rail rapid transit, which can travel unattended under automatic train operation (ATO), safe, high-quality LRT operation relies on a human operator as a key element. The reason that the operator is so important is that the train tracks often share the streets with automobiles, other vehicles, and pedestrians. If trains were fully automated on roads, nobody would be there to stop the train if a car pulled in front of it. Light rail trains are very sturdily built for passenger safety, and to reduce damage from impacts with cars.[citation needed]
Floor height
The latest generation of LRVs has the advantage of partially or fully low-floor design, with the floor of the vehicles only 300 to 360 mm (11.8 to 14.2 in) above the top of the rail, a feature not found in either rapid rail transit vehicles or streetcars. This allows them to load passengers, including those in wheelchairs or strollers, directly from low-rise platforms that are little more than raised sidewalks. This satisfies requirements to provide access to disabled passengers without using expensive and delay-inducing wheelchair lifts, while also making boarding faster and easier for other passengers.[citation needed]
Power sources
Tram and other light rail transit systems worldwide
Around the world, there are many extant tram and streetcar systems. Some date from the beginning of the 20th century or earlier such as
Several UK cities have substantial light rail networks including the
A smaller network between Birmingham and The Black Country (West Midlands Metro), with plans to add 6 new lines and extend out to Stourbridge, Birmingham Airport & Walsall. Edinburgh Trams is also a single line route, currently looking to add other lines.[59]
-
A light-rail vehicle of the Newcastle Light Rail on Honeysuckle, an urban development in Newcastle, New South Wales
-
A light-rail vehicle on the Hämeenkatu street in Tampere
-
Metrotram in Kryvyi Rih (Ukraine) was separated from the streets, but later it was upgraded to be compatible with common tramways.
-
A light-rail vehicle of theVLT Carioca on Avenida Rio Brancoin Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
-
A light-rail vehicle of theChina
See also
- Capa vehicle
- General Motors streetcar conspiracy
- H-Bahn
- Light rail in North America
- List of modern tramway and light rail systems in the United Kingdom
- List of rail transit systems in the United States
- List of town tramway systems (all-time lists)
- List of tram and light rail transit systems
(operational systems only) - Medium-capacity rail transport system
- Passenger rail terminology
- Railway electrification system
- Premetro
- Rubber-tyred trams
- Streetcars in North America
- Tram and light rail transit systems
References
- ^ a b "Fact Book Glossary – Mode of Service Definitions". American Public Transportation Association. 2015. Archived from the original on 25 February 2018. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
- ^ "National Transit Database Glossary". U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Transit Administration. 18 October 2013. Archived from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
- ^ "What is light rail?". Public transport A-Z. International Association of Public Transport. 2008. Archived from the original on 13 October 2008. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
- ^ "This Is Light Rail Transit" (PDF). Transportation Research Board. pp. 7–9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 April 2018. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
- ^ "What is Light Rail?". Light Rail Transit Association (LRTA). Archived from the original on 5 June 2016. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
- ^ "Welcome to Saskrailmuseum.org". Saskatchewan Railway Museum. BlackNova Internet Services. 11 September 2008. Archived from the original on 15 October 2008. Retrieved 26 December 2009.
- ^ C. N. Pyrgidis. Railway Transportation Systems: Design, Construction, and Operation. CRC Press, 2016. p. 156
- ^ Ye. N. Petrova. St. Petersburg in Focus: Photographers of the Turn of the Century; in Celebration of the Tercentenary of St. Petersburg. Palace Ed., 2003. p. 12
- ^ Courtenay, Peter (2006). "Trams in the UK". thetrams.co.uk. Retrieved 26 December 2009.
- ^ a b Bottoms, Glen (2000). Continuing Developments in Light Rail Transit in Western Europe (PDF). 9th National Light Rail Transit Conference. Portland, Oregon: Light Rail Transit Association. Retrieved 26 December 2009.
- hdl:2027/uc1.$b3477.
- ^ Thompson, Gregory L. (2003). "Defining an Alternative Future: The Birth of the Light Rail Movement in North America". Transportation Research Circular (E-C058). Transportation Research Board. Retrieved 26 December 2009. From: 9th National Light Rail Transit Conference
- ^ Wright, Gerald (Fall 1972). Light Rapid Transit – the Immediate Answer for Edmonton. Edmonton, Alberta: The University Practicum in Rapid Transit – University of Alberta Extension Service.
- ^ Gregory L. Thompson (2003), Defining an Alternative Future: Birth of the Light Rail Movement in North America (PDF), Transportation Research Board.
- ^ "Tram (definition)". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved 18 July 2007.
- ^ "The Yesterland Hotel Tram". Yesterland.com. Retrieved 7 February 2013.
- ^ "Trolley (definition)". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved 18 July 2007.
- ^ "Light Rail Transit". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 18 July 2007.
- ^ Smiler, Simon P. "Trams, Streetcars, and Light Rail Vehicles". citytransport.info. Retrieved 18 July 2007.
- ^ Plous, F.K. Jr. (June 1984). "A Desire Named Streetcar". Planning. American Planning Association. Archived from the original on 3 March 2006. Retrieved 14 August 2007.
- )
- ^ "Low-clearance Rapid Transit: Cheaper than subways, faster than trolleys". TreeHugger. Retrieved 15 November 2019.
- ^ "Light Rail Schedule Speed – Faster Than Bus, Competitive With Car". www.lightrailnow.org.
- ^ "Link Light Rail in the North American Context". 30 December 2009.
- ^ Comparison of Energy Use & CO2 Emissions From Different Transportation Modes Archived 29 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine page 7, Results of Analysis. M.J. Bradley & Associates, May 2007
- ^ Matt Lorenz and Lily Elefteriadou (2000) A Probabilistic Approach to Defining Freeway Capacity and Breakdown (PDF), Transportation Research Board.
- ^ "Highlights of the 2001 National Household Travel Survey: A-15 Vehicle Occupancy Per Vehicle Mile by Time of Day and Weekend Status". US Department of Transportation. Archived from the original on 28 June 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2016.
- ^ https://homepage.rub.de/Dietrich.Braess/Paradox-BNW.pdf (1968) end of chapter 4 retrieved 2023/02/27
- ^ "Ontario Expanding Highway 401 in Cambridge". news.ontario.ca. Retrieved 2 December 2021.
- ^ "Ontario is finally widening Highway 401 through the GTA". www.blogto.com. Retrieved 2 December 2021.
- ^ Tom Parkinson and Ian Fisher (1996) Rail Transit Capacity Archived 11 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Transportation Research Board.
- ^ Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual, Transportation Research Board.
- ^ ISBN 1-59385-055-7.
- ^ "LRT-1 sets 25-year high record ridership". Manila Light Rail Transit Authority. 12 January 2009. Archived from the original on 26 March 2009. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
- ISBN 978-0-309-43229-0.
- ^ a b "National Transportation Statistics 2013" (PDF). U.S. Department of Transportation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2016.
- ^ Sabatini, Jeff (25 April 2014). "Dissected: Charting transportation mayhem in its many gory varieties". Car and Driver.
- ^ a b "Status of North American Light Rail Projects". Light Rail Now. 2002. Archived from the original on 28 October 2006. Retrieved 23 November 2006.
- ^ "Link Light Rail Projects". Sound Transit (Central Puget Sound Regional Transit Authority). 2006. Archived from the original on 17 November 2006. Retrieved 23 November 2006.
- ^ "Highway Construction Cost Comparison Survey Final Report" (PDF). Washington State Department of Transportation. April 2002. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 September 2009.
- ^ Traffic and Highway Engineering By Nicholas J. Garber, Lester A. Hoel, p. 37
- ^ Shaw, Mark (May–June 2006). "Reinventing a Corridor: Denver's T-REX project nears completion after five years". Constructor. McGraw-Hill Construction. Archived from the original on 19 October 2006. Retrieved 20 November 2006.
- ^ Flynn, Kevin (17 November 2006). "T-REX trains ready to roll". Rocky Mountain News (Denver, CO). Archived from the original on 22 March 2007. Retrieved 20 November 2006.
- ^ a b
McKendrick; et al. (2006). "Calgary's C-Train – Effective Capital Utilization" (PDF). Joint International Light Rail Conference, St. Louis, Missouri. Calgary Transit. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 December 2011. Retrieved 11 February 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ "LRT technical data". Calgary Transit. 2006. Archived from the original on 23 October 2006. Retrieved 14 October 2006.
- S2CID 109351210– via SAGE Journals.
- ^ Vuchic, Vukan R. (1 October 1972). "Light Rail Transit Systems: A Definition and Evaluation". United States Department of Transportation Urban Mass Transportation Administration (730). Retrieved 21 February 2024.
- )
- ^ "Bikes on Muni". San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency. Retrieved 14 August 2013.
- ^ "How to Load Your Bike on MAX". trimet.org. Retrieved 28 February 2024.
- ISBN 978-0-313-33916-5.
- ^ "Gold Coast Light Rail Feasibility Study". Commonwealth Government, Gold Coast City Council & Queensland Government Queensland Transport. 23 December 2004. Archived from the original on 19 March 2003.
- ^ "Bordeaux Light Rail Route Will Operate Without Overhead Lines" (Press release). American Public Transportation Association. 2003. Archived from the original on 1 December 2008. Retrieved 21 December 2007.
- ^ "99% AVAILABILITY AND EXCEPTIONALLY HIGH PASSENGER LEVELS : THE BORDEAUX URBAN TRAMWAY IS A RESOUNDING SUCCESS". Railway-Technology.com. Net Resources International. Archived from the original on 13 June 2008. Retrieved 26 December 2009.
- ^ Fazio, A. E.; Hickey, T. R. (2003). "Designing New Light Rail – Taking Engineering Beyond Vanilla". Circular E-C058: 9th National Light Rail Transit Conference. Transportation Research Board. Retrieved 10 November 2006.
- ^ "Technical Data". Light Rail Vehicle System Houston/Texas, USA. Siemens. 2008. Archived from the original on 27 April 2008. Retrieved 18 March 2008.
- ^ a b "Siemens S70 Low-floor Light Rail Vehicle" (PDF). Siemens.
- ^ a b "Gomaco Trolley Company". Gomaco Trolley Company.
- ^ Swanson, Ian (9 December 2022). "Edinburgh tram expansion backed by Scottish Government in new transport blueprint". Edinburgh Evening News.
External links
- Light Rail Transit Committee of the Transportation Research Board (US)
- Light Rail Transit Association (UK-based, international organization)
- Light Rail Now! (US) A pro-light rail web site opposing less common transportation systems.
- "This Is Light Rail Transit" (PDF) brochure by the American Public Transportation Association (APTA) (2000; updated 2003)