Linear Elamite
Linear Elamite | |
---|---|
Semisyllabary
logosyllabic[b] | |
Time period | c. 2300–1850 BCE |
Status | Extinct |
Direction | Left-to-right, right-to-left script |
Languages | Elamite |
Related scripts | |
Parent systems | ?
|
Linear Elamite was a
There have been multiple attempts to decipher the script, aided by the discovery of a limited number of multilingual and bigraphic inscriptions. Early efforts by Carl Frank (1912) and Ferdinand Bork (1905, 1924) made limited progress.[6] Later work by Walther Hinz and Piero Meriggi furthered the work.[7][8] Starting in 2018, Desset outlined some of his proposed decipherments of the script accomplished with a team of other scholars.[4][9][10] Their proposed near-complete decipherment was published in 2022,[5] being received positively by some researchers[c] while others[d] remain sceptical until detailed translations of texts have been published.[11][3]
History
It is often argued that Linear Elamite is derived from the older
There is also evidence that the script was used even earlier, such as in 2300 BCE, but this has not been fully confirmed.[citation needed]
The use of Linear Elamite continued after 2100 BCE, and the death of King Puzur-Shushinak, last ruler of the
In 2018, substantial new Linear Elamite texts became available to scholars,
Known texts
Three corpora
As of 2021[update], there are now 51 known texts and fragments written in Linear Elamite.[17] They can be divided into three sub-corpora: the Western Elamite (Lowlands), the Central Elamite (Highlands), and the Eastern Elamite (Elamo-Bactrian).[17]
Western Elamite (Lowlands)
19 texts are on stone and clay objects excavated in the acropolis at Susa (now kept in the Louvre in Paris). These are now classified as belonging to the Western Elamite (Lowlands) group.[17] Other objects are held at the National Museum of Iran.
Central Elamite (Highlands)
The Central Elamite (Highlands) group consists of twenty-four inscriptions or fragments (with 1133 signs in total).[17] In 2016, 10 additional Linear Elamite inscriptions were discovered (and published in 2018), some containing nearly 200 signs.[18] These are now classified as belonging to this group.
Eastern Elamite (Elamo-Bactrian)
The Eastern Elamite group consists of eight short inscriptions, whose lengths range from two and eleven signs.[17]
Older classification
According to an older classification, Elamite texts were identified by letters A-V.[f]
The most important longer texts, partly
Examples
-
Clay cone with Linear Elamite text, dated to the reign ofLouvre MuseumSb 17830.
-
Clay tablet with Linear Elamite text. Louvre Museum Sb 9382.
-
Perforated stone, with Linear Elamite text. Louvre Museum Sb6 Sb177.
-
Table au Lion with Linear Elamite text, and a proposed reading by Frank (1912, p. 29).
-
Perforated stone with Linear Elamite text, and a proposed reading by Frank (1912, pp. 32–33).
-
Suspected forgeries
A few of the short Linear Elamite inscriptions on some unprovenanced objects are suspected of being forgeries.[17][g] In particular, three brick tablets found at Jiroft are suspect.[22]
Decipherment
A very large
Early efforts (1905–1912)
The first readings were determined by the analysis of the bilingual cuneiform Akkadian-Linear Elamite Table au Lion (
- Pu-zu-r shu-shi-na-k, King Puzur-Inshushinak.[26]
- I-n-shu-shi-na-k, God Inshushinak.[26]
Further efforts were made, but without significant success.[25]
Silver beakers
Additional readings were proposed by CNRS associate researcher François Desset in 2018, based on his analysis of several silver beakers that were held in a private collection, and only came to light in 2004. Desset identified repetitive sign sequences in the beginning of the inscriptions, and guessed they were names of kings, in a manner somewhat similar to
Reading texts
In 2020 Desset announced that he and an international team of researchers had completed a proposed decipherment of all known inscriptions in Linear Elamite, through deductive work based on the confrontation of known Elamite vocabulary and the recently determined additional letters, and through the analysis of the standard contents of known Elamite texts in cuneiform.[29][10] Their near-complete decipherment of the script was published in 2022.[5] (See below.)
New readings include:
Writing system
Classification
In 2009, the archaeologist Jacob L. Dahl, who researches the decipherment of Proto-Elamite, argued that Linear Elamite was a limited-use writing system with few practitioners and that its signary lacked standardisation. He expressed doubts that the corpus of texts belonged to a single shared tradition of writing and suggested that many texts may be composed of pseudo-glyphs which do not encode any decipherable meaning, although some appeared to imitate older texts.[31]
In 2022,
Sign inventories
An early inventory of Linear Elamite by Carl Frank , published in 1912, listed 64 distinct signs, noting some allographic variations.[26] Since then, more recent discoveries have allowed more signs to be identified. In 2022, Desset and his colleagues published an updated inventory of 348 Linear Elamite glyphs,[34] corresponding to between 80–110 graphemes, including 72 phonographic signs and their allographic variants, 4 undeciphered infrequent signs, and 33 hapax legomena.[35]
Relationship to other scripts
Some scholars have suggested that Linear Elamite is derived from the older
However, the continuous evolution of Linear Elamite from Proto-Elamite is disputed by other researchers. Dahl argues that similarities with Linear Elamite are better explained by imitation of the most frequent Proto-Elamite signs from objects recovered at Susa by Elamite scribes familiar with
Encoding
During a 2-year research program at ANRT (Atelier National de Recherche Typographique), Sina Fakour designed a computer font for Linear Elamite based on the analysis of inscriptions on various materials. The typeface, named Hatamti, includes about 300 glyphs that makes the digital transmission and reproduction of Linear Elamite possible. Additionally he investigated the role of the engraving tool and the material on the quality of the signs.[38] This project was undertaken as part of the Missing Scripts[39] program and in collaboration with François Desset.
See also
Notes
- ^ According to Desset et al. (2022).
- ^ According to others,[2][3] and accepted by Desset[2][4] until 2020.
- ^ Such as Manfred Krebernik, an expert on Near Eastern Studies at the University of Jena; Matthew Stolper, an Assyriologist at the University of Chicago; Piotr Steinkeller, an Assyriologist at Harvard University.
- ^ Such as Michael Mäder, linguist at the University of Bern.
- ^ Desset et al. (2022), p. 52: "Here we put forward the hypothesis that Proto-Elamite and Linear Elamite scripts were probably not two different writing systems, but the same system at two different chronological stages of evolution"; with footnote 122: "As has previously been proposed by Gelb (1963, 89: Linear Elamite as a 'developed form' of Proto-Elamite), Reiner (1969, 56: 'a more developed form of this writing'), Meriggi (1971, 184: 'derivate da quella delle tavolette di contabilità'), Steve (2000, 75–78), and Grillot (2008, 9). For an opposite view, see Englund (2004, 143–44, n. 9)."
- ^ See Hinz (1969, pp. 11–44); André & Salvini (1989, pp. 58–61).
- ^ See "Authenticity of the Artifacts" section in Mäder (2021).
References
- ^ Frank (1912), pp. 52–56.
- ^ a b c Desset (2018a).
- ^ a b c d Ewert (2022).
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Desset (2018b).
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Desset et al. (2022).
- ^ Hinz (1975).
- ^ Meriggi (1971), Meriggi (1974a), and Meriggi (1974b)
- ^ Hinz (1969).
- ^ Desset (2021).
- ^ a b c Arnaud (2020).
- ^ Lawler (2022).
- ^ Barraclough & Stone (1989), p. 53.
- ^ Senner (1991), p. 77.
- ^ Salvini (2011).
- ^ Vallat (2011).
- ^ Desset (2018a), Item Q.
- ^ a b c d e f Mäder (2021), pp. 1–9.
- ^ Mäder (2017).
- ^ Potts (2008).
- ^ Harper, Aruz & Tallon (1992).
- ^ Desset et al. (2022), p. 29.
- ^ Lawler (2007).
- ^ Hinz & Koch (1987a).
- ^ Hinz & Koch (1987b).
- ^ a b c d Desset (2018a), pp. 405–406.
- ^ a b c Frank (1912).
- ^ Desset (2018b), p. 140.
- ^ Desset et al. (2022), p. 12–13.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Desset (2020a).
- ^ a b Desset (2020b).
- ^ Dahl (2009), pp. 23–31.
- ^ Desset et al. (2022), pp. 35–36, 50–53.
- ^ Mäder (2021), p. 1.
- ^ Desset et al. (2022), p. 19–23.
- ^ Desset et al. (2022), p. 34–35.
- ^ University of Tehran (2021).
- ^ Dahl (2023).
- ^ "Anrt – The Missing Scripts 2021: Elamite Linéaire". anrt-nancy.fr. Retrieved 13 October 2023.
- ^ "The World's Writing Systems : The Project". www.worldswritingsystems.org. Retrieved 13 October 2023.
Bibliography
- André, B.; Salvini, M. (1989). "Réflexions sur Puzur-Inšušinak". Iranica Antiqua (in French). 24: 53–72. .
- Arnaud, Bernadette (7 December 2020). "Un Français "craque" une écriture non déchiffrée de plus de 4000 ans, remettant en cause la seule invention de l'écriture en Mésopotamie". Sciences et Avenir (in French). Retrieved 7 December 2020.
- Barraclough, Geoffrey; Stone, Norman (1989). The Times Atlas of World History. Hammond Incorporated. ISBN 9780723003045.
- Dahl, Jacob L. (2009). "Early Writing in Iran, a Reappraisal". Iran. 47. Taylor & Francis Ltd.: 23–31. S2CID 163339670.
- Dahl, Jacob L. (2023). "Proto-Elamite and linear elamite, a misunderstood relationship?". Akkadica. ISSN 1378-5087.
- Desset, François (2018a). "Linear Elamite Writing". In Álvarez-Mon, Javier; Basello, Gian Pietro; Wicks, Yasmina (eds.). The Elamite World. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. pp. 397–415. ISBN 978-1-315-65803-2.
- Desset, François (2018b). "Nine Linear Elamite Texts Inscribed on Silver "Gunagi" Vessels (X, Y, Z, F', H', I', J', K' and L'): New Data on Linear Elamite Writing and the History of the Sukkalmaḫ Dynasty". Iran. 56 (2): 105–143. S2CID 193057655.
- Desset, François (2020a). "Breaking the Code: The Decipherment of Linear Elamite, a Forgotten Writing System of Ancient Iran (3rd Millenium BC)". Canal-U.
- Desset, François (2020b). A New History of Writing on The Iranian Plateau – via YouTube.
- Desset, François (1 September 2021). "On The Decipherment Of Linear Elamite Writing". The Postil (Interview). Interviewed by Robert M. Kerr.
- Desset, François; Tabibzadeh, Kambiz; Kervran, Matthieu; Basello, Gian Pietro; Marchesi, Gianni (2022). "The Decipherment of Linear Elamite Writing". Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie. 112 (1): 11–60. S2CID 250118314.
- Ewert, Katrin (18 August 2022). "Archaeological mystery: Ancient Elamite script from Iran deciphered?". Deutsche Welle.
- Frank, Carl (1912). Zur Entzifferung der altelamischen Inschriften (in German). Berlin: Verlag der Königl. Akademie der Wissenschaften.
- Harper, Prudence O.; Aruz, Joan; Tallon, Françoise, eds. (1992). The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 264. ISBN 0-87099-651-7.
- Hinz, Walther (1969). Altiranische Funde und Forschungen (in German). Berlin: De Gruyter.
- Hinz, Walther (1975). "Problems of Linear Elamite". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 107 (2): 106–115. S2CID 162464457.
- Hinz, Walter; Koch, Heidemarie (1987a). Elamisches Wörterbuch (in German). Vol. 1. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer.
- Hinz, Walter; Koch, Heidemarie (1987b). Elamisches Wörterbuch (in German). Vol. 2. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer.
- Lawler, A. (2007). "Ancient Writing or Modern Fakery?". Science. 317 (5838): 588–89. S2CID 191278527.
- Lawler, Andrew (1 August 2022). "Have Scholars Finally Deciphered a Mysterious Ancient Script?". Smithsonian Magazine.
- Mäder, Michael (2017). "Some New Linear Elamite Inscriptions". BAF-Online: Proceedings of the Berner Altorientalisches Forum. 1. .
- Mäder, Michael (28 October 2021). "Linear Elamite". In Potts, Daniel T.; Harkness, Ethan; Neelis, Jason; McIntosh, Roderick J. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Ancient History. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 1–9. S2CID 240165903– via academia.edu.
- Meriggi, Piero (1971). La scritura proto-elamica, Parte Ia: La scritura e il contenuto dei testi (in Italian). Roma: Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei.
- Meriggi, Piero (1974a). La scritura proto-elamica, Parte IIa: Catalogo dei segni (in Italian). Roma: Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei.
- Meriggi, Piero (1974b). La scritura proto-elamica, Parte IIIa: Testi (in Italian). Roma: Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei.
- Potts, Daniel (2008). "Puzur-Inšušinak and the Oxus Civilization (BMAC): Reflections on Šimaški and the geo-political landscape of Iran and Central Asia in the Ur III period" (PDF). Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie. 98 (2): 165–194. S2CID 161149124.
- Salvini, Mirjo (2011). "Elam IV: Linear Elamite". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition. Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.
- Senner, Wayne M. (1991). The Origins of Writing. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9780803291676.
- Vallat, F. (2011). "Elam I: The History of Elam". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition. Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.
- Breaking the Code, The Decipherment of Linear Elamite Writing (Media notes). University of Tehran. 26 January 2021. Archived from the original on 28 March 2021.
Further reading
- Bork, F. (1905). "Zur protoelamischen Schrift". Orientalistische Literaturzeitung (in German). 8: 323–330.
- Bork, Ferdinand (1924). Die Strichinschriften von Susa (in German). Königsberg in Preußen.
- Desset, François (2014). "A New Writing System Discovered in 3rd Millennium BCE Iran: The Konar Sandal 'Geometric' Tablets". Iranica Antiqua. 49: 83–109. .
- Desset, François (2022). "Considerations on the History of Writing on the Iranian Plateau (ca. 3500-1850 BC)". Journal of Archaeology and Archaeometry. 1 (1): 1–11.
- Englund, Robert K. (1996). "The Proto-Elamite Script" (PDF). In Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (eds.). The World's Writing Systems. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 160–164. ISBN 0-19-507993-0.
- Englund, Robert K. (2004). "The State of Decipherment of Proto-Elamite". In Houston, S. (ed.). The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 100–49.
- Hinz, Walther (1962). "Zur Entzifferung der elamischen Strichinschrift". Iranica Antiqua (in German). 2: 1–21.
- Gelb, I. J. (1963). A Study of Writing (PDF) (2nd ed.). Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
- Grillot-Susini, Françoise (2008) [1987]. L'élamite: Éléments de grammaire (in French). Paris: Geuthner.
- Mäder, Michael; Balmer, Stephan; Plachtzik, Simon; Rawyler, Nicolai (2018). "Sequenzanalysen zur elamischen Strichschrift" [A sequence analysis of Linear Elamite]. Elamica (in German). 8.
- Pandey, Anshuman (2021), Preliminary proposal to encode Linear Elamite in Unicode (PDF) – via unicode.org
- Reiner, Erica (1969). "The Elamite language". In Friedrich, J. (ed.). Altkleinasiatische Sprachen. Leiden: BRILL. pp. 54–118.
- Steve, M. J. (2000). "Le syllabaire proto-élamite linéaire". In Viers, Rina (ed.). Des signes pictographiques à l'alphabet. La communication écrite en Méditerranée. Actes du colloque, 14 et 15 mai 1996, villa grecque Kérylos [organisé par la] Fondation Théodore Reinach (Beaulieusur-Mer) (in French). Paris: Éd. Karthala. pp. 73–86. OCLC 468142001.
- Vallat, Francois (1986). "The Most Ancient Scripts of Iran: The Current Situation". World Archaeology. 17 (3): 335–47. .
External links
- Linear-Elamite on CDLIWiki
- Linear Elamite Text Images at CDLI
- Online Corpus of Linear Elamite Inscriptions OCLEI
- "Breaking the Code, The Decipherment of Linear Elamite Writing" University of Tehran lecture on 26 January 2021 (video, plus text summary)
- Cryptic 4,000-year-old writing system may finally be deciphered Owen Jarus LiveScience 30 August 22