Liquid helium
Liquid helium in a transparent bowl, cooled below the Lambda point, where it exhibits properties of superfluidity
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Properties | |
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He | |
Molar mass | 4.002602 g·mol−1 |
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
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Liquid helium is a physical state of helium at very low temperatures at standard atmospheric pressures. Liquid helium may show superfluidity.
At standard pressure, the
Liquefaction
Helium was first liquefied on July 10, 1908, by the Dutch physicist
Liquified helium-3
A
Characteristics
Because of the very weak interatomic forces in helium, the element remains a liquid at atmospheric pressure all the way from its
Liquid helium-4 and the rare helium-3 are not completely
At extremely low temperatures, the superfluid phase, rich in helium-4, can contain up to 6% helium-3 in solution. This makes the small-scale use of the
Superfluid helium-4 has substantially different properties from ordinary liquid helium.
History
In 1908, Kamerlingh-Onnes succeeded in liquifying a small quantity of helium. In 1923, he provided advice to the Canadian physicist John Cunningham McLennan, who was the first to produce quantities of liquid helium almost on demand.[9]
In 1932 Einstein reported that the liquid helium could help in creating an atomic bomb.
Important early work on the characteristics of liquid helium was done by the Soviet physicist Lev Landau, later extended by the American physicist Richard Feynman.
In 1961, Vignos and Fairbank reported the existence of a different phase of solid helium-4, designated the gamma-phase. It exists for a narrow range of pressure between 1.45 and 1.78 K.[10]
Data
Properties of liquid helium | Helium-4 | Helium-3 |
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Critical temperature[4] |
5.2 K (−267.95 °C) | 3.3 K (−269.85 °C) |
Boiling point at one atmosphere[4] | 4.2 K (−268.95 °C) | 3.2 K (−269.95 °C) |
Minimum melting pressure[11] | 25 bar (360 psi) | 29 bar (420 psi) at 0.3 K (−272.850 °C) |
Superfluid transition temperature at saturated vapor pressure |
2.17 K (−270.98 °C)[12] | 1 mK in the absence of a magnetic field[13] |
Gallery
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Liquid helium (in a vacuum bottle) at 4.2 K (−268.95 °C) and 1 bar (15 psi) boiling slowly.
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Lambda point transition: as the liquid is cooled down through 2.17 K (−270.98 °C), the boiling suddenly becomes violent for a moment.
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Superfluid phase at temperature below 2.17 K (−270.98 °C). In this state, thethermal conductivityis extremely high. This causes heat in the body of the liquid to be transferred to its surface so quickly that vaporization takes place only at the free surface of the liquid. Thus, there are no gas bubbles in the body of the liquid.
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The liquid helium is in the superfluid phase. A thin invisible film creeps up the inside wall of the bowl and down on the outside. A drop forms. It will fall off into the liquid helium below. This will repeat until the cup is empty—provided the liquid remains superfluid.
See also
References
- ^ "The Observed Properties of Liquid Helium at the Saturated Vapor Pressure". University of Oregon. 2004.
- ^ Wilks (1967), p. 7.
- ^ "Cryogenics: Low temperatures, high performance". CERN. 28 June 2023.
- ^ a b c d Wilks (1967), p. 1.
- ISBN 9780121764807.
- ^ .
- PMID 10058756.
- ^ Wilks (1967), p. 244.
- ^ "THE LIFE OF SIR JOHN CUNNINGHAM McLENNAN Ph.D, F.R.S.C, F.R.S., O.B.E., K.B.E. (1867 - 1935)". University of Toronto Physics. Archived from the original on 2006-05-05.
- .
- ^ Wilks (1967), pp. 474–478.
- ^ Wilks (1967), p. 289.
- ^ Dieter Vollhart & Peter Wölfle (1990). The Superfluid Phases of Helium 3. Taylor and Francis. p. 3.
- General
- VanSciver, Steven W. (2012). Helium cryogenics. International cryogenics monograph series (2. ed.). New York, NY: Springer. ISBN 978-1-4419-9978-8.
- Wilks, J. (1967). The Properties of Liquid and Solid Helium. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-851245-7.
- Freezing Physics: Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and the Quest for Cold, Van Delft Dirk (2007). Edita - The Publishing House Of The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. ISBN 978-90-6984-519-7.
External links
- He-3 and He-4 phase diagrams, etc.
- Helium-3 phase diagram, etc.
- Onnes's liquifaction of helium
- Kamerlingh Onnes's 1908 article, online and analyzed on BibNum Archived 2018-02-18 at the Wayback Machine [for English analysis, click 'à télécharger']
- CERN's cryogenic systems.