List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes
The ethnic names of this List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes are stated or implied by the ancient authors to have belonged to an overall ethnic identity called by them generally Celts. Some of the main authors, such as Julius Caesar, explicitly state that Celtic, the adjective, implies the use of a distinctive Celtic language. If a tribe did not speak Celtic, it was not called Celtic. This implication is sufficiently widespread for modern linguists to conclude that if a tribe was called Celtic, it spoke Celtic.
From widespread evidence in literature, inscriptions, and names, modern linguists are able to conclude to a group of closely related languages termed Celtic languages. Linguistic classification of languages by the Tree Method, or Genetic Method, which establishes degree of similarity of vocabulary and syntax between languages, can be used to assign a relationship of one language to another. Closely similar languages are closely related by definition. This relationship is termed ethnolinguistic.
An ethnolinguistic relationship has nothing to do with biological genetic relationships. Two populations may be close ethnolinguistically but totally different genetically, as when one population learns the language of another. Similarly the customs of two populations apart from language have nothing to do with either the people or the language. Among such customs are the archaeologies. The archaeological finds and culture names have nothing to do with the langage, except for inscriptions found. This article attempts to arrange Celtic languages by ethnolinguistic similarity. Nothing is impled concerning the origins of the peoples or their material culture.
In
Modern people and their languages are excluded from this list. A few Celtic languages are still extant. They are not of interest here.
The ancestor language
In the Tree Model of language development, languages develop historically (or diachronically, "through time") by splitting. At a point T1 in time a population of P speaks a common language L. Over the range of P two different groups, P1 and P2, within P begin to speak L differently, so that at T2 there are now L1 and L2 where before was only L. L1 and L2 are sister languages, while L is variously called the common, proto-, or parent language.
It is clear that in the Tree Model of language development, groups of sister languages, L1, L2, ..., Ln, exist, and every group must come from a proto-language. The very assertion that any languages are related implies the former existence of one, and only one, proto-language as ancestor. Thus to refer at all to a group of languages termed Celtic implies the sometime existence of
There is only one Proto-Celtic. From it descend all the Celtic languages without exception. Proto-Celtic is the ancestor of the Celtic languages. The linguistic possibilty that a language might belong to more than one tree and thus have more than one ancestor is not of concern here but is considered in the lists below. Such a case might happen when two populations combine and develop a combined language. There is, however, only one Celtic ancestor of any Celtic language, regardless of what else it might be. If any of its languages are considered out of the group, then it is not Proto-Celtic. If Proto-Celtic is considered not to have existed, then none of the supposed Celtic languages are that. There is a theory that Celtic languages and therefore Celts did not exist as such. Such a view linguistically would require linguists to discard all their dictionaries and start over, an unlikely event.
Merging into the Tree Model is the Genetic Model. In the latter, an ancestor with all its descendants is termed a clade, and is called monophyletic. As languages do not suddenly appear from nowhere, the Celtic clade must have had a mother language as well. It undoubtedly had sister languages to Proto-Celtic. Proto-Celtic and its ancestor alone are called paraphyletic, meaning that some of the sister languages of Proto-Celtic are not considered. One of the problems of historical linguistics is to determine what sister groups are clades and what not.
Asit turns out, Proto-Celtic and all its sister languages are in a virtual clade called
Corresponding to this conception there must have been a Proto-Indo-European language spoken by a population that linguists may call Proto-Indo-Europeans. This is a linguistic exonym. The speakers did not imagine themselves such or know of their far-ranging linguistic alliances. Analysis of tribal names suggests they may have called themselves by some sort of family name, such as "the people" or "our people." There is no evidence of an Indo-European race, as anyone could come into contact with the Indo-Europeans and learn Indo-European.
Proto-Indo-European, though the mother of Proto-Celtic was not a Celtic language, nor a Greek language, nor an Anatolian language, nor any of the others. The proto-language has a number of characteristics that, passed on to the descendant languages, are termed in linguistics shared retentions. No daughter language can ever be defined on shared retentions, as there is no way it can differ from the parent. What makes a language distinctive is the shared innovations, characteristics that are not in Proto-Indo-European. It can get these from anywhere as long as it is non-Indo-European. The term shared applies to different subjects in each case. The innovations will be shared by daughter languages of the daughter.
Map 2 depicts the current state of the virtual clades of Indo-European in the view of D.W. Anthony. Credibility requires a fundamental assumption that archaeological cultures can represent language groups. For example, perhaps there is something about the archaeology of London that tags it as English-speaking rather than French-speaking, etc.
The pre-WWII scholars had adopted this view with reservations; for example,
Archaeologists of the times were daring. Eurasian cultures were fair game for anthropological archaeologists such as V. Gordon Childe, who became the British mentor of archaeology. He was sorting through dozens of new cultures without really knowing what to do with them, as there was no way to date them. He threw them all into the thousand years around 2000 BC, and developed some very imaginative links betweem them, influenced, as they all were by the rising Nazi racial standards. James Henry Breasted provided a benchmark with his concept of the Great White Races, as opposed to the Mongoloids and Negroids, who didn't fare so well. He was only a notable example of a general line of thought.
A catastophe was about to fall on the archaeology of the 1950's and before. The field of atomic research concomitant with the development of the atomic bomb discovered a method of dating organic material by estimating time of radioactive decay (Radiocarbon dating). Streams of new dates for the Eurasian cultures fell upon the works and estimates of the WWII scholars. Although Childe's success in some areas stood, for the most part his sequences lost meaning. The dates were quite different from previously expected. The whole thing needed to be redone. Childe's Aryan Race, for example, vanished away. Aged and ill from cancer, Childe jumped off a cliff.
Continental Celts
in the east. Many of the populations from these regions were calledEastern Celts[2]
They lived Southern
- Teuriscii.[3]They were later assimilated by Dacians.
- (Danube).
- (Danube).
- Boii [2]– a tribal confederation, originally from today's Bohemia (Western Czech Republic) that dwelt in the Hercynia Silva and dispersed through migrations to other regions of Europe, to areas of modern Slovakia, Germany, Austria, Hungary and Northern Italy.[6][7][8] Another hypothesis is that they were a tribal confederation, originally from today's Southern France who migrated to Hercynia Silva under Segovesus, and dispersed through migrations to other regions of Europe, to areas of modern Slovakia, Germany, Austria, Poland and Hungary.[6][7]
- Boii tribes of unknown names in the Hercynia Silva - roughly in today's Bohemia
- Boii (in Cisalpine Gaul) – Central Emilia-Romagna (Bologna) and Lodi, Lombardy.
- .
- Boii Boiates / Boviates / Boiates – La Tête de Buch, probably around ).
- Boii (in Pannonia) - Pannonia, today's Western Hungary (west of the Danube) and part of eastern Austria
- Germanictribe.
- Breuci[9]
- people).
- Gallia). (They were not Cisalpine Gaulish Celts).
- Celts of Tylis / Tylisian Celts[10]
- (Danube).
- Cotini – areas of modern Slovakia, west of the Anartes, and areas of Western Hungary, west of the river Danubius (Danube), south of Lacus Pelsodis / Pelso (today's Lake Balaton).
- Eravisci / Aravisci [12]– areas of modern Western Hungary, west of the river Danubius (Danube), Aquincum (modern Budapest) was in their territory.
- Helvetii-Rauraci / Raurici
- Helvetii – original dwellers of Agri Decumates region, in the western part of Hercynia Silva, to the east and north of the Rhine; later, possibly at the end of the 3rd century BC they expanded to the South and Southwest to land later called Helvetia (modern day Switzerland). They were possibly more related to the Celtic populations of the upper Danube basin than to the Celts of Gaul.
- Raurici – Kaiseraugst (Augusta Raurica), a tribe closely related to the Helvetii.
- (Danube).
- Latobici / Latovici[14] - not the same tribe as the Latobrigi but they could have been related, they dwelt in areas of modern Slovenia and Western Hungary, west of the river Danubius (Danube).
- Latobrigi - uncertain location, maybe to the north or northeast of the Helvetii in the upper Danube (Danubius) and upper Rhine river basins, original dwellers of Agri Decumates region, in the western part of Hercynia Silva.
- Scordisci[15] - areas of modern Serbia, Croatia, Austria, Romania, west of the river Danubius (Danube). According to Livy, they were related to the Bastarnae.
- 's Capital)
- Serapilli - areas of modern Western Hungary, west of the river Danubius(Danube).
- (Danube).
- Tricornenses[21] (a later formation tribe)
- Norici / Taurisci / Varisci - a tribal confederation
- Alauni - in the middle Aenus river basin (Inn), east of the Aenus in the Eastern Alps, Chiemsee and Attersee lakes region.
- Ambidravi / Ambidrani - in the upper and middle Dravus (Drau/Drava) river basin in the Eastern Alps and also in the Mur/Mura river basin, today's Carinthia and Styria, Austria.
- Ambilici - in the Dravus (Drau/Drava) river basin, east of the Ambidravi/Ambidrani (today's Southeast Austria and Northeast Slovenia).
- Ambisontes / Ambisontii - in the Alpes Noricae (East Central Alps), in the upper Salzach river basin.
- Nori - may have been a tribe of the larger Taurisci tribal federation; in the Eastern Alps and in the Mur/Mura and Schwarza rivers basins and other areas, today's Styria and Lower Austria (Austria) south of the Danubius(Danube), also may have been a Germanic tribe.
- Sevaces - in the low Aenus river basin (Inn), east of the Aenus and south of the Danubius (Danube), roughly in today's Upper Austria.
- Anartoi. Celts assimilated by Dacians[3]
- Varciani [14]– areas of modern Slovenia, Croatia.
- Danube basin. May have been a confederation of mixed Celtic and Germanic tribes.
- Vennonetes/Vennones/Vennonienses.
- .
- Consuanetae / Cosuanetes / Cotuantii - Upper and middle valley of fl. Isarus (r. Isar) (Bavarian Alps) in today's Upper Bavaria, Germany.
- Estiones - South of the Cambodunum (today's Kempten) was one of their towns.
- Leuni - in the Isarus (Isar) and Ammer (Amper) river areas, Munich area, Bavaria.
- Licates -in the Licus (Lech) river valley, south of the Catenates.
- Rucinates / Rucantii - Between rivers Isarus (Isar) and Danuvius (Danube), Low Bavaria.
- Vennonetes - Upper valley of fl. Rhenus (r. Rhine) in today's canton of St. Gallen, Switzerland, south of the Brigantii.
- Vindelici Proper – a tribe to the north of the Upper Danube.
- ).
- Volcae tribes of unknown names in Hercynia Silva - roughly in today's Moravia and Main river basin.
- Volcae Arecomisci– in southern Gaul, in the Mediterranean coast of today's Languedoc.
- )
- Possible Volcae tribes
- Volciani – may have been a tribe related to the Volcae and not to the Hispano-Celts / Iberian Celts (i.e., the Celts of the Iberian Peninsula). Located north of the river Iberus (Ebro), but not very precisely.
Galatians
In the middle 3rd century BC,
- Aigosages,[24] between Troy and Cyzicus
- Daguteni,[24] in modern Marmara region around Orhaneli
- Inovanteni,[24] east of the Trocnades
- Okondiani,[24] between Phrygia and Galatia northeast of modern Akşehir Gölü
- Rigosages,[24] unlocated
- Trocnades,[24] in Phrygia around modern Sivrihisar
- Unknown tribe (Territory of Gaezatorix, a Celtic Chieftain),[24] between Bithynia and Galatia at modern Bolu
- Core Galatians
- Tectosages,[24] in Galatia
- Tolistobogii,[24] in Galatia
- Trocmii,[24]in Galatia (easternmost known Celtic tribe)
Celtae)
- Aremorica or Armorica
- Haedui - Gaulish Celtslargest tribal confederation, roughly in the geographical centre of Gaul and controlling important land, river, and trade routes
- Haedui proper - Bibracte
- Ambivareti
- East Yorkshire, United Kingdom.
- Senones – Sens
- Agenisates / Angesinates – Angoumois
- Agnutes – Vendée
- Allobroges/Allobriges – Vienne, Southern Gaul
- Ambarri (they were allies to the Aedui Confederation but not part of it)
- Aremorica or Armorica
- Aremorica or Armorica
- Anagnutes
- Andecamulenses
- Andecavi/Andes – Angers
- Antobroges
- Arverni – Gergovia (tribal confederation)
- Aremorica or Armorica(Land "Before the Sea” or “Close to the Sea” - Are Morica)
- Arvii
- Atacini – Aussière
- Atesui
- Aulerci (tribal confederation)
- tribal confederation)
- Aulerci Cenomani / Gaul Cenomani – Le Mans
- Aulerci Diablintes
- Aulerci Eburovices
- Aulerci Sagii
- Aremorica or Armorica
- Narbo (Narbonne) region.
- Bipedimui / Pimpedunni
- Bituriges
- Bituriges Cubi – Bourges (an eastern branch of the Bituriges but within the Aedui tribal confederation)
- Burdigala)
- Cadurci – Cahors
- Caeresi
- Cambolectres
- Aremorica or Armorica
- Lake Leman
- Corisopiti
- Aremorica or Armorica
- Edenates– in Southern Gaul
- Eleuterii
- Elycoces
- Epomandui
- Sesuvii
- Helvii / Elvi - Southern Gaul
- Lemovices – Limoges
- Aremorica or Armorica
- Lingones
- Mandubii – Alesia (under Aedui Confederation influence but not part of it)
- Medulli Meduci – Médoc, southwestern Gaul
- Aremorica or Armorica
- Nantuates / Nantuatae
- Nitiobroges/Nitiobriges
- Aremorica or Armorica
- Petrocorii – Périgueux
- Pictavi – Poitiers
- Aremorica or Armorica
- Ruteni – Rodez
- Santones – Saintes
- Seduni – High Rhône river valley, Sion (Middle Valais, Switzerland)
- , was in their land (they were allies to the Aedui Confederation but not part of it).
- Segovellauni / Segovi – in Southern Gaul
- Sequani – Besançon
- Tornates / Turnates
- Tricasses / Tricassini
- Triviatii
- Trones
- Turoni – Tours
- Uberi / Viberi – High Rhône river valley, Upper Valais
- Velaunii – Ruessium
- Aremorica or Armorica
- Aremorica or Armorica
- Aremorica or Armorica
- Mix of several Gaulish tribes
- Gaesatae – Numbering c. 30,000, they participated in the battle of Telamon[26] a group of mercenary Celtic warriors from several tribes of the western Alps slopes, not a tribe.
- Possible Gaulish tribes
- Galli (tribe) – along Gallicus (Gállego) river banks, see place names (toponyms) like Forum Gallorum, Gallur, a different tribe from the Suessetani; may have been a tribe related to the Galli (Gauls) and not to the Hispano-Celts / Iberian Celts. Some Gaulish tribes may have migrated southward and crossed the Pyrenees (by the north, the central, or the south areas of the mountains) in a second or a third Celtic wave to the Iberian Peninsula. These tribes were different from the Hispano-Celtic / Iberian Celtic tribes.
- ).
Cisalpine Gauls
- Roman Italy.[29] Until that time, it was considered part of Gaul, precisely that part of Gaul on the "hither side of the Alps" (from the perspective of the Romans), as opposed to Transalpine Gaul ("on the far side of the Alps").[30]
- Seven Gaulish tribes that according to Etruscans at the Ticino, settled in Insubria and founded the city of Mediolanum, the modern Milan.[31]They were ancestors of Cisalpine Gauls.
- Fidentia, Province of Piacenza)
- Anamares – Minor tribe whose precise location along the southern bank of the river Padus in Italy is uncertain
- Placentia (Piacenza, Province of Piacenza)
- GalliaTransalpina).
- Insubres – Western Lombardy (Milan). Said by Pliny to descend from the Aedui.
- Gallia).
- Gallia).
- Seven Gaulish tribes that according to
Lepontine Celts
They seem to have been an older group of
- Piemonte, North-eastern Piedmont, far Northwestern Lombardy, and Switzerland in the Lepontine Alps. They were not Gaulish Celts
- )
Ligurians
May have been
- Acitavones
- Adenates / Adanates – slopes of the Western Alps (Maurienne-Modanne), Southern Gaul
- Adunicates – Andon área, Southern Gaul
- Albici – Middle and Lower Durance river valley, Southern Gaul (tribal confederation)
- Albienses / Albici Proper
- Vordenses
- Vulgientes
- Anatili
- Avantices (Avantici)
- Volcae Arecomici, in Southern Gaul
- Belaci
- Bodiontici – in Southern Gaul
- Bormanni
- Bramovices – Low Tarentaise, Savoy, Southern Gaul
- Briganii / Brigianii – Briançon, High Durance river valley, Southern Gaul
- Caburri
- Camatulici
- Casmonates / Cosmonates (in the area of Castellazzo Bormida)
- Caturiges – Chorges, High Durance river valley, in Southern Gaul
- Arausio (Orange), in Southern Gaul (tribal confederation)
- Centrones – Moûtiers, in the western Alps slopes, Southern Gaul
- Coenicenses
- Dexivates
- Esubiani – Ubaye Valley, Southern Gaul
- Euburiates
- Gabieni
- Glanici
- Graioceli / Garocelli – Alps western slopes in part of eastern Savoy, and Alps eastern slopes, northwestern Piedmont in the Graian Alps
- Iadatini
- Iconii – Gap, in Southern Gaul
- Irienses
- Libii / Libici
- Ligauni
- Maielli
- Southern Gaul
- Naburni
- Nearchi
- Nemalones / Nemolani – in Southern Gaul
- Nemeturii – High Var river valley, Southern Gaul
- Orobii - in the northern Italian Alpine valleys of Bergamo, Como and Lecco
- Quariates – in Southern Gaul
- Reieni / Reii - in Southern Gaul
- Salassi (Gallo-Ligurian people) – Aosta Valley and Canavese (Northern Piedmont) (Ivrea)
- Salluvii
- Savincates
- Sebagini
- Segobriges
- Segovi
- Piemonte)
- Sentienes / Sentii – Senez, in Southern Gaul
- Sigorii
- Sogiontii
- Suelteri / Sueltri
- Suetrii
- Taurini – parts of central Piedmont (Turin region)
- Tebavii
- Tricastini
- Tricorii – in Southern Gaul
- Tritolii
- Ucenni
- Veamini – in Southern Gaul
- Vennavi
- Vergunni – Vinon-sur-Verdon, Southern Gaul
- Verucini
- Vercors, southern Gaul.
- Vertamocorii – Eastern Piedmont (Novara). Said by Pliny to descend from the Vocontii.
Hispano-Celts / Celts of Hispania
They lived in large parts of the Iberian Peninsula, in the Northern, Central, and Western regions (half of the Peninsula's territory). The
Western Hispano-Celts (Celts of Western Hispania)
Western Hispano-Celts were Celtic peoples and tribes that inhabited most of north and western Iberian Peninsula regions. They are often confused or taken as synonym of Celtiberians but, in fact, they were a distinct Celtic population that was most part of Iberian Peninsula Celtic populations. They spoke
- La Rioja(Spain) to the Atlantic Coast
- northern León (Spain), and east of Trás os Montes(Portugal), (tribal confederation).
- Cismontani
- Amaci
- Cabruagenigi
- Gigurri
- Lancienses
- Lougei
- Orniaci
- Superatii
- Susarri/Astures Proper
- Tiburi
- Zoelae – Eastern Trás-os-Montes (Portugal), (Miranda do Douro).
- Transmontani
- Baedunienses
- Brigaentini
- Cabarci
- Iburri
- Luggones/Lungones
- Paenii
- Paesici
- Saelini
- Vinciani
- Viromenici. Might be related to the Viromandui.
- Cismontani
- Bebryaces / Berybraces – unknown location, may have been related to the Bebryces (gauls) or the Berones, there is also the possibility that it was an old name of the Celtiberians.
- La Rioja (Spain). Could have been related to the Eburones.
- Ligurian (i.e. an Indo-Europeanlanguage branch not Celtic but more closely related to Celtic). A Tribal confederation.
- Avarigines
- Blendii / Plentusii / Plentuisii
- Camarici / Tamarici
- Concani / Gongani – two tribes of similar name (the Britannia Gangani and Hibernia Gangani) lived in Britannia and Hibernia, they could have been three branches of the same tribe, three related tribes with common ancestors or three different tribes that shared similar names.
- Coniaci / Conisci
- Moroecani
- Noegi
- Orgenomesci
- Salaeni / Selaeni
- Vadinienses
- Vellici / Velliques
- Ligurian (i.e. an Indo-Europeanlanguage branch not Celtic but more closely related to Celtic).
- (the name of these tribes is known today by archaeology discovery of their names in old stellae and not by mention of any known or survived works of Classical Antiquity authors)
- Aelarici / Aelariques
- Aeturici / Aeturiques
- Arquioci - in Iplacea, Roman named Complutum (today's Alcalá de Henares) region.
- Acualici / Acualiques
- Bocourici / Bocouriques
- Toletum (Toledo) region.
- Contucianci - in Segobriga region.
- Dagencii
- Dovilici / Doviliques
- Duitici / Duitiques
- Duniques
- Elguismici / Elguismiques
- Langioci
- Longeidoci
- Maganici / Maganiques
- Malugenici / Malugeniques
- Manucici / Manuciques
- Maureici
- Mesici
- Metturici
- Moenicci
- Toletum (Toledo) region
- Pilonicori
- Solici
- Tirtalici / Tirtaliques - in Segobriga region.
- Uloci / Uloques
- Venatioci / Venatioques
- Celtici – Portugal south of the Tagus and north of Guadiana (Anas), Alentejo and Algarve (Portugal), western Extremadura (Spain), (tribal confederation).
- Málaga Province), Andalusiaregion (southernmost known Celtic tribe).
- Cempsi
- celticization of the Cynetes by the Celtici confused the distinction between the two peoples or tribes).[33]
- Mirobrigenses
- Oestrimni (in a land that was called Oestriminis).
- Unknown tribes
- Gallecians) – Gallaecia (Portugal & Galicia). Western Hispano-Celtslargest tribal confederation.
- Abobrigenses
- Addovi / Iadovi
- Aebocosi
- Aedui (Gallaecian tribe)
- Albioni – western Asturias(Spain).
- Amphiloci
- Aquaflavienses / Aquiflavienses - Vila Real District (Chaves), (Portugal)
- Arroni / Arrotrebi
- Arrotrebae / Artabri (Turodes Artabri) – Northern Galicia (Spain), They might be related to the Atrebates of Gallia Belgica.
- Artodii
- Aunonenses
- Baedi
- Baião Municipality, Eastern Porto District, (Portugal).
- Barhantes
- Bibali / Biballi
- Bracari / Callaeci Bracari – roughly in today's Braga District, (Portugal).
- Brassii
- Brigantes (Gallaecian tribe) – Northern Bragança District, Bragança, (Portugal).
- Caladuni
- Capori / Copori
- Celtici (Gallaecian)
- Cibarci
- Cileni
- Ourense Province (Spain), south of Minho (river).
- Cuci
- Egi
- Egovarri / Varri Namarini
- Equaesi – Minho and Trás-os-Montes (Portugal).
- Callaeci Proper, this tribe gave name to the larger tribal confederation of the same name (not the same tribe as the Bracari) - roughly in today's Porto District (Portuguese District = County) west of the Tâmega.
- Grovii / (Turodes Grovii) – Minho (Portugal) and Galicia (Spain).
- Iadones
- Interamici / Interamnici – Trás-os-Montes (Portugal).
- Lapatianci
- Lemavi
- Leuni – Minho (Portugal).
- Lima river banks, Minho (Portugal) and Galicia (Spain).
- Louguei
- Luanqui – Trás-os-Montes (Portugal).
- Naebisoci / Aebisoci
- Namarii
- Narbasi -Minho (Portugal) and Galicia (Spain).
- Nemetati – Minho (Portugal).
- Nerii / Neri
- Poemani, they might be related to the Paemani.
- Quaquerni / Querquerni – Minho (Portugal).
- Segodii
- Seurbi – Minho (Portugal).
- Seurri – Sarria Municipality, East Central Galicia (Spain)
- Tamagani – Chaves (Portugal).
- Tongobrigenses
- Turodi / Turodes – Trás-os-Montes (Portugal) and Galicia (Spain).
- Cynetes – Cyneticum (today's Algarve region) and Low Alentejo (Portugal); originally probably Tartessians or similar, later celtized by the Celtici; according to some scholars, Cynetes and Conii were two different peoples or tribes[33] [4].
- Oestrimni or Oestrymini - They lived in far-western Iberian Peninsula in coastal Atlantic regions (today's Galicia and Portugal) before other Celtic peoples, their land was called Oestryminis or Oestriminis(their existence is not well proven, semi legendary people).
- Osismii (Iberian Peninsula) - people mentioned along with the Oestrymni or may have been the same people.
- La Rioja(Spain).
- Callaeci or Turdetani.
- Badajoz Province, Portugal Southeastern corner, East Beja District, Alentejoregion.
- Callaeci or Turdetani.
- Callaeci or Turdetani.
- Callaeci or Turdetani.
- Turmodigi or Turmogi - Central Burgos.
- Civitates (that also had the meaning of tribes)[34]
- Cauci (Vaccaei) – in Cauca (Coca, Segovia)
- Other tribes (19 other tribes mentioned by Ptolemy)
- Ligurian (i.e. an Indo-European language branch not Celtic but more closely related to Celtic). [5].
Eastern Hispano-Celts (Celtiberians)
Eastern
- Arevaci (Celtiberian Arevaci – Celtiberian tribe “Before or Close to the Vaccaei” – Are Vaci – Are Vaccaei)
- Belli
- Cratistii
- Lobetani
- Guadalajara(Spain).
- Castilla-La Mancha (Spain); they were a different people from the Oretani.
- Olcades
- Oretani? – northeastern Andalusia, northwest Múrcia and southern fringes of La Mancha, (Spain), mountains of the headwaters of the Guadalquivir (ancient river Baetis); Some consider them not Celtic [6] (see Germani (Oretania)).
- Leyre.
- Titii (Celtiberian)
- Turboletae / Turboleti
- Uraci / Duraci
- Possible Celtiberian tribe
- ).
Insular Celts
Britons (Celts)
They spoke
- Ancalites (mentioned by Caesar; uncertain: speculatively Hampshire and Wiltshire) (they may have been later conquered by the possibly Belgian Catuvellauni)
- Attacotti (origin uncertain)
- Bibroci (mentioned by Caesar; location uncertain but possibly Berkshire) (they may have been later conquered by the possibly Belgian Catuvellauni)
- Boresti (sometimes Horesti) (In or near Fife, Scotland according to Tacitus)
- Brigantes (an important tribe in most of Northern England and in the south-east corner of Ireland)
- Cantiaci (in present-day Kent which preserves the ancient tribal name)
- Carvetii (Cumberland)
- Cassi (mentioned by Caesar; possibly south-east England) (they may have been later conquered by the possibly Belgian Catuvellauni)
- Coritani (East Midlands including Leicester)
- Corionototae (possibly a tribe, a subtribe of the Brigantes or a group of warriors) (Northumberland)
- Cornovii (Midlands)
- Damnonii (Southwestern Scotland)
- Deceangli (Flintshire, Wales)
- Demetae (Dyfed, Wales)
- Severnvalley)
- Dumnonii (Devon, Cornwall, Somerset)
- Cornovii (Cornwall) (a sub-tribe of the Dumnonii)
- Durotriges (Dorset, south Somerset, south Wiltshire, possibly the Isle of Wight
- Gabrantovices
- Gangani (Llŷn Peninsula, Wales) - A tribe of the same name, the Gangani (Ganganoi), lived in Hibernia's southwestern coast, they could have been two branches of the same tribe, two related tribes with common ancestors or two different tribes that shared similar names. A tribe of similar name, the Gongani or Concani, was a tribe of the Cantabri, they could have been another branch of the same tribe, related tribes with common ancestors or a different tribe that shared a similar name.
- Iceni-Cenimagni (may have been the same tribe)
- Cenimagni (Iceni Magni?) (mentioned by Caesar; perhaps the same as the Iceni)
- Iceni (East Anglia) – under Boudica, they rebelled against Roman rule
- Novantae (Galloway and Carrick)
- Ordovices (Gwynedd, Wales) – they waged guerrilla warfare from the north Wales hills
- Parisi (East Riding of Yorkshire). A tribe of similar name, the Parisii, dwelt in Paris region, France.
- Segontiaci (mentioned by Caesar; probably south-east England) (they may have been later conquered by the possibly Belgian Catuvellauni)
- Selgovae (Dumfriesshire and the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright)
- Setantii (possibly a tribe) (Lancashire)
- Silures (south Wales) – resisted the Romans in present-day south Wales
- , they joined in their rebellion
- Otadini (north-east England and south-east Scotland) – they later formed Gododdin
Picts / Caledonians
They were a different people from the
- Caledones- a tribal confederation
- Caledonii Proper (along the Great Glen)
- )
- Vacomagi (in and around the Cairngorms)
- Venicones (Fife and south-west Tayside in Scotland)
- Carnonacae (western Highlands)
- Carini or Caereni (far western Highlands)
- Cataibh
- Cornavii (far northern mainland Scotland) (northernmost known Celtic tribe)
- Creones (Argyll)
- Decantae or Ducantae (eastern Ross and Black Isle)
- Epidii (Kintyre and neighboring islands)
- Lugi (southern Sutherland)
- Maetae (Miathi?)
- Smertae (central Sutherland)
- Tribe of unknown name in the Faroe Islands (may have been Picts)
- Tribe of unknown name in the Orkney Islands(may have been Picts)
- Tribe of unknown name in the Shetland Islands(may have been Picts)
Goidels / Gaels / Hibernians
They spoke
- Autini (Aouteinoi - Auteinoi on the map, not the Greek spelling)
- Britons? A tribe of the same name lived in northern Britanniaor they could have been two different tribes that shared the same name)
- Cauci (Καῦκοι, Kaukoi on the map) A tribe of the same name (Chauci) lived in Northern Germany or they could have been two different tribes that shared the same name.
- Coriondi (or Koriondoi) A tribe of a similar name (Corionototae) lived in Northern Britannia.
- Darini (Darinoi)
- Eblani (Eblanioi)
- Erdini (Erdinoi)
- Britons? A tribe of the same name lived in western Britannia(today's northwestern Wales) they could have been two branches of the same tribe, two related tribes with common ancestors or two different tribes that shared similar names.
- Iverni (Iouernoi - Iwernoi on the map, not the Greek spelling)
- Belgicaprovince or they could have been two different tribes that shared similar names)
- Nagnatae or Magnatae (Nagnatai or Magnatai)
- Robogdii (Rhobogdioi)
- Usdiae (Ousdiai - Usdiai on the map, not the Greek spelling)
- Uterni (Outernoi - Uternoi on the map, not the Greek spelling)
- Velabri or Vellabori (Ouellaboroi - Wellabrioi on the map, not the Greek spelling)
- Vennicnii (Ouenniknioi - Wenniknioi on the map, not the Greek spelling)
- Later peoples
- .
Possible Para-Celts
Para-Celtic has the meaning that these peoples had common ancestors with the
Belgae[37]
A people or a group of related tribes that dwelt in
(large tribal confederation). According to classical authors works, like Caesar's- Mainlander Belgica)
- Ambiani – Amiens
- Ambivareti
- Belgica) – Arras
- Bellovaci – Beauvais
- Caleti/Caletes – Harfleur (Caracotinum), later Lillebonne (Juliobona)
- Catalauni / Gaul Catuvellauni – Châlons-en-Champagne
- Catuslogi
- Eburones (mixed Belgae and Germani cisrhenani people)
- Leuci – Toul (Tullum Leucorum)
- Mediomatrici – Metz
- Meldi – Marne (Matrona) – Meaux
- (modern Ireland) coast, they could have been two branches of the same tribe, two related tribes with common ancestors or two different tribes that shared similar names.
- Morini – Boulogne-sur-Mer
- Nervii – Bavay, Belgae largest tribal confederation.
- Remi – Reims
- Silvanectii – Senlis
- Suessiones – Soissons (Suessetani may have been related, result of a migration towards south)[38]
- Tencteri – Rhine east bank, may have been a Celtic tribe (and not a Germanic one) or a mixed Belgae and Germani tribe.
- Treveri – Trier
- Usipetes – Rhine east bank, may have been a Celtic tribe (and not a Germanic one) or a mixed Belgae and Germani tribe.
- Veliocasses/Velicasses/Velocasses – Rouen
- Viromandui – Noyon
- Islander Belgae (in south and southeast Great Britain)
- Atrebates (in Britannia) – an important Belgic tribe of today's Southern England, in Berkshire. Related to or a branch of the Atrebates that lived in Gallia Belgica.
- Belgae (tribe) (in Britannia) – Belgic tribe, in today's England's south coast, Isle of Wight, Hampshire, Wiltshire
- British tribes (Insular Celts).
- Regni / Regnenses – Belgic tribe, in today's East Hampshire, Sussex and Surrey
- Possible Belgae tribe
- Navarra (Spain), between the rivers Gallicus (Gállego) and Low Aragon, and between the river Ebro and Sierra de Santo Domingo mountains. Alba (Arba) river basin (a tributary of the Ebro) was in the centre of their territory that also included the Bardenas Reales. Corbio was their capital. They were north of the Celtiberians, south of the Iacetani and the Vascones, west of the Galli (tribe). They were later conquered by the Vascones in the 2nd Century B.C. which were allies of the Romans. Could have been related to the Suessiones (a tribe of the Belgae).[38]
Ligurians
Northern Mediterranean Coast straddling South-east
- Alpini / Montani
- Apennines Mountains to the Mediterraneancoast.
- Bagienni (or Vagienni) – (in the area of Bene Vagienna)
- Bimbelli
- Briniates (or Boactes) – (in the area of Brugnato)
- Celelates
- Cerdiciates
- Commoni
- Cosmonates
- Deciates – (a tribe that dwelt in the region of Antipolis (Antibes) west of the river Varus (Var), in modern Provence)
- Epanterii
- Euburiates
- Friniates – (in the area now called Frignano)
- Garuli – (in the area of Cenisola)
- Genuates – (in the area of Genua - Genoa)
- Hercates
- Ilvates (or Iluates) – (if different from the Iriates) (on the island of Elba)
- Iriates / Ilvates / Mainland Ilvates (Iluates?)
- Apennines Mountains and Ligurian Alps to the Mediterraneancoast.
- Intemelii - Western Liguria from the Ligurian Alps to the Mediterranean coast, west of the Ingauni, in the Albium Intemelium area (today's Ventimiglia).
- Laevi – a Ligurian tribe that dwelt in the low river Ticinus (Ticino), according to both Livy & Pliny.[42] According to Livy (v. 34), they took part in the expedition of Bellovesus into Italy in the 6th century BC
- Langates
- Lapicini (or Lapicinii) – In the extreme northern regions of Liguria, as it was defined in Roman times, on a tributary of the Magra
- Duria Bautica/Duria Maior (Dora Baltea) and Sesites/Sessites(Sesia).
- Magelli
- )
- Olivari
- ) and Antipolis.
- Sabates
- Susa)
- Sueltri / Suelteri
- Apennines Mountains to the Mediterranean coast, west of the Apuani.
- Tricastini
- Vediantii
- Veiturii
- Veleiates / Veliates
- Veneni
- Possible Ligurian tribes
- Corsi
- Belatones (Belatoni)
- Cervini
- Cilebenses (Cilibensi)
- Corsi Proper
- Cumanenses (Cumanesi)
- Lestricones / Lestrigones (Lestriconi / Lestrigoni)
- Licinini
- Longonenses (Longonensi)
- Macrini
- Opini
- Subasani
- Sumbri
- Tarabeni
- Tibulati
- Titiani
- Venacini
- Corsi
Lusitanians-Vettones
- Proto-Celticin ethnicity.
- Arabrigenses
- Aravi
- Coelarni/Colarni
- Interamnienses
- Lancienses
- Meidubrigenses
- Paesuri – Douro and Vouga (Portugal).
- Palanti
- Talures
- Tangi
- Elbocori
- Igaeditani
- Tapori/Tapoli – river Tagus, around the border area of Portugal and Spain.
- Veaminicori
- Other Lusitanian tribes? (According to some scholars, these tribes were Lusitanians and not Vettones)[33]
- Ligurian (i.e. an Indo-Europeanlanguage branch not Celtic but more closely related to Celtic). A tribal confederation.
- Salamanca Province, Spain.
- Other Vettonian tribes? (According to some scholars, these tribes were Lusitanians and not Vettones)[33]
Turdetanians
Today's Western
- Cádiz Province
- Huelva Province
- Córdoba Province
- Córdoba
- Seville Province
Veneti (Adriatic Veneti)
Transitional people between Celts and Italics? Celticized Italic people? Para-Celtic people?
Possible Celts mixed with other peoples
Celto-Dacian-Germanic
- Osi/Osii – areas of modern Slovakia[45]
Celto-Germanic
- anthroponyms were also Celtic) Celts influenced by Germanics or the opposite? The name Germani for ancient authors such as Julius Caesar did not always had an accurate ethnic or linguistic meaning, they were not necessarily Germanic-speaking. (a collective name for 7 tribes)
- Aduatuci / Atuatuci
- Ambivaretes / Ambivareti
- Caemani / Paemani
- Caeroesi / Caerosi
- Condrusi
- Texuandri?)
- Segni
- Lugii – north and northeast of the Boii and Volcae, areas of modern far southwestern and far southern Poland; also may have been a Germanic tribe.
- Tencteri? (name etymology is Celtic)
- Usipetes?
Celtic-Germanic-Iranian
- Celto-Germanic people, and according to Livy "the bravest nation on earth". Possibly originating in Galicia (Eastern Europe) from the interaction between Celts, Germanics and Sarmatian Iranian peoples.
- Peucini
Celto-Illyrians?
Ligurians
- tribe.
Non-Celtic people, heavily Celticized
Rhaetians
They lived in Central
- Breuni, Pons Aeni (modern Wasserburg) was their main centre.
- Illyrian tribe and not a Rhaetianone.
- Bressanone/Brixen.
- Calucones / Culicones - Calanda (upper valley of fl. Rhenus - r. Rhine) in today's Grisons canton, Switzerland and Valtellina, Colico.
- Consuanetae / Cosuanetes/Cotuantii? - Upper and middle valley of fl. Isarus (r. Isar) (Bavarian Alps) in today's Upper Bavaria, Germany; also may have been a tribe of the Vindelici (a tribal confederacy), named Cotuantii (if they are the same).
- Breuni.
- .
- South Tirol, Italy.
- Medoaci - close to the Meduacum (Brenta) source, Ausugum (Borgo Valsugana) was their main town.
- Mesiales - south of the Lepontii.
- Trento Province.
- Veneto Region).
- Rucinates / Rucantii? - Between rivers Isarus (Isar) and Danuvius (Danube), Low Bavaria; also may have been a tribe of the Vindelici (a tribal confederation).
- Rugusci / Ruigusci/Rucantii? Upper Engadin (fl. Aenus - r. Inn) in today's Grisons canton, Switzerland.
- Suanetes / Suanitae / Sarunetes - Upper Rhenus (Upper Rhine) and Valley of r. Albula in today's Grisons canton, Switzerland.
- Tridentini - in the middle Athesis (Adige) river basin.
- Brescia Province, Italy; also may have been a tribe of the Euganeiand not a Rhaetian tribe.
- Vennonetes / Vennones / Vennonienses - Upper valley of fl. Rhenus (r. Rhine) in today's canton of St. Gallen, Switzerland; also may not have been a Rhaetian tribe but instead a tribe of the Vindelici(a tribal confederation).
- South Tirol, Italy.
See also
- The summary table on Celtic tribes (in French)
- Celtic peoples
- Irish clans
- Scottish clan
- Celticization
- Late Basquisation
- Illyrians
- Thracians
- Britannia
- Caledonia
- Hibernia
- Scotia
- Hispania
- List of Germanic peoples
- Iberia
- Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula
Notes
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7524-2913-7
- ^ ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5
- ^ ISBN 0-415-41252-8, 2007, p. 47.
- ISBN 3-88270-501-9, p. 144.
- ^ Géza Alföldy, Noricum, Tome 3 of History of the Provinces of the Roman Empire, 1974, p. 69.
- ^ ISBN 1-85109-440-7.
- ^ a b c "Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome, Book 5, chapter 34". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2018-02-12.
- ^ A. Mocsy and S. Frere, Pannonia and Upper Moesia. A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire. p. 14.
- ^ Pannonia. A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire. p. 14.
- Frank W. Walbank, Polybius, Rome and the Hellenistic World: Essays and Reflections,ISBN 0-521-81208-9, 2002, p. 116: "... in A7P 60 (1939) 452 8, is not Antigonus Doson but barbarians from the mainland (either Thracians or Gauls from Tylis) (cf. Rostovizef and Welles (1940) 207-8, Rostovizef (1941) 111, 1645), nor has that inscription anything to do with the Cavan expedition. On ..."
- ^ Velika Dautova-Ruševljan and Miroslav Vujović, Rimska vojska u Sremu, 2006, p. 131: "extended as far as Ruma whence continued the territory of another community named after the Celtic tribe of Cornacates"
- ISBN 0-7618-4465-1, 2009, p. 51: "In a short time the Dacians imposed their conditions on the Anerati, Boii, Eravisci, Pannoni, Scordisci,"
- ISBN 1-85109-440-7, 2006, p. 907.
- ^ ISBN 0-631-19807-5, p. 81: "In Roman Pannonia the Latobici and Varciani who dwelt east of the Venetic Catari in the upper Sava valley were Celtic but the Colapiani of ..."
- ISBN 0-631-19807-5, p. 140: "... Autariatae at the expense of the Triballi until, as Strabo remarks, they in their turn were overcome by the Celtic Scordisci in the early third century"
- ^ ISBN 0-631-19807-5, p. 217.
- ISBN 1-84171-440-2, p. 24: "the Dindari were a branch of the Scordisci"
- ISBN 0-521-22717-8, 1992, p. 600: "In the place of the vanished Treres and Tilataei we find the Serdi for whom there is no evidence before the first century BC. It has for long been supposed on convincing linguistic and archeological grounds that this tribe was of Celtic origin"
- ^ Dio Cassius, Earnest Cary, and Herbert B. Foster, Dio Cassius: Roman History, Vol. IX, Books 71–80 (Loeb Classical Library, No. 177), 1927, Index: "... 9, 337, 353 Seras, philosopher, condemned to death, 8. 361 Serdi, Thracian tribe defeated by M. Crassus, 6. 73 Seretium,""
- ^ Dubravka Balen-Letunič, 40 godina arheoloških istraživanja u sjeverozapadnoj Hrvatskoj, 1986, p. 52: "and the Celtic Serretes"
- ^ Alan Bowman, Edward Champlin, and Andrew Lintott, The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 10: The Augustan Empire, 43 BC-AD 69, 1996, p. 580: "... 580 I3h. DANUBIAN AND BALKAN PROVINCES Tricornenses of Tricornium (Ritopek) replaced the Celegeri, the Picensii of Pincum ..."
- ^ William M. Ramsay, Historical Commentary on Galatians, 1997, p. 302: "... these adaptable Celts were Hellenized early. The term Gallograecia, compared with Themistius' (p. 360) Γαλατία ..."
- ^ Roger D. Woodard, The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor, 2008, p. 72: "... The Phrygian elite (like the Galatian) was quickly Hellenized linguistically; the Phrygian tongue was devalued and found refuge only ..."
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Prifysgol Cymru, University of Wales, A Detailed Map of Celtic Settlements in Galatia, Celtic Names and La Tène Material in Anatolia, the Eastern Balkans, and the Pontic Steppes.
- ^ a b Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur. Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico, Book I, chapter 1
- ^ Plutarch, Marcellus, chapters 6-7 [1]
- ^ von Hefner, Joseph (1837). Geographie des Transalpinischen Galliens. Munich.
- ISBN 978-88-8289-851-9
- ^ Long, George (1866). Decline of the Roman republic: Volume 2. London.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Snith, William George (1854). Dictionary of Greek and Roman geography: Vol.1. Boston.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Ab Urbe Condita. p. 5,34.
- ^ Aguña, Julián Hurtado (2003). "Las gentilidades presentes en los testimonios epigráficos procedentes de la Meseta meridional". Boletín del Seminario de Estudios de Arte y Arqueología: Bsaa (69): 185–206.
- ^ a b c d e Jorge de Alarcão, “Novas perspectivas sobre os Lusitanos (e outros mundos)”, in Revista portuguesa de Arqueologia, vol. IV, n° 2, 2001, p. 312 e segs.
- ^ Ptolemy, Geographia, II, 5, 6
- ISBN 0-300-09442-6, noting that Ulaidh was the original tribal designation of the Uluti, who are identifiable as the Voluntii of the Ptolomey map and who occupied, at start, all of the historic province of Ulster.
- ^ a b c d Indoeuropeos y no Indoeuropeos en la Hispania Prerromana, Salamanca: Universidad, 2000
- ISBN 1-85109-440-7.
- ^ ISBN 1-58112-890-8(v. 1)
- ISBN 978-3-11-080711-0.
- ISBN 978-0500015247.
- ISBN 978-0500015247.
- ^ (Liv. v. 35; Plin. iii. 17. s. 21.)
- ISBN 978-1-85109-440-0.
- ^ Smith, William. "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), BAETIS". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. Perseus Digital Library.
{{cite book}}
:|website=
ignored (help) - Germanictribe.
- ISBN 0-300-13719-2, 2009, p. 105: "... who had moved to the Hungarian Plain. Another tribe, the Bastarnae, may or may not have been Germanic. ..."
- ISBN 1-84176-329-2, 2001, p. 12: "... never got near the main body of Roman infantry. The Bastarnae (either Celts or Germans), and `the bravest nation on earth' – Livy ..."
- ^ Charles Anthon, A Classical Dictionary: Containing The Principal Proper Names Mentioned In Ancient Authors, Part One, 2005, p. 539: "... Tor, " elevated," " a mountain. (Strabo, 293)"; "the Iapodes (Strabo, 313), a Gallo-Illyrian race occupying the valleys of ..."
- ISBN 0-631-19807-5, p. 79: "along with the evidence of name formulae, a Venetic element among the Japodes. A group of names identified by Alföldy as of Celtic origin: Ammida, Andes, Iaritus, Matera, Maxa,"
- ^ J. J. Wilkes, Dalmatia, Tome 2 of History of the Provinces of the Roman Empire, 1969, pp. 154 and 482.
- ^ Géza Alföldy, Noricum, Tome 3 of History of the Provinces of the Roman Empire, 1974, p. 24-5.
- ^ Cowles Prichard, James (1841). Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind: 3, Volume 1. Sherwood, Gilbert and Piper. p. 240.
- ^ Markey, Thomas (2008). Shared Symbolics, Genre Diffusion, Token Perception and Late Literacy in North-Western Europe. NOWELE.
References
- Alberro, Manuel and Arnold, Bettina (eds.), e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies, Volume 6: The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula, University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee, Center for Celtic Studies, 2005.
- Haywood, John. (2001). Atlas of the Celtic World. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0500051092
- Kruta, Venceslas. (2000). Les Celtes, Histoire et Dictionnaire. Paris: Éditions Robert Laffont, coll. « Bouquins ». ISBN 2-7028-6261-6.
- Mallory, J.P. and Douglas Q. Adams (1997). ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5.
Further reading
- Sims-Williams, Patrick. "The location of the Celts according to Hecataeus, Herodotus, and other Greek writers". In: Études Celtiques, vol. 42, 2016. pp. 7–32. [DOI:https://doi.org/10.3406/ecelt.2016.2467]; [www.persee.fr/doc/ecelt_0373-1928_2016_num_42_1_2467]
External links
- https://dc.uwm.edu/ekeltoi/ - electronic Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies by the Center for Celtic Studies at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.
- http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/home.html – 51 complete works of authors from Classical Antiquity (Greek and Roman).
- http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Caesar/Gallic_War/home.html – Julius Caesar text of De Bello Gallico(Gallic War).
- http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Caesar/Spanish_War/home.html – Unknown author text (about Julius Caesar in Hispania) of De Bello Hispaniensi (Spanish War).
- http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/home.html – Pliny the Elder text of Naturalis Historia(Natural History) – books 3–6 (Geography and Ethnography).
- http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/home.html – Strabo's text of De Geographica (The Geography).