List of concentration and internment camps
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This is a list of internment and concentration camps, organized by country. In general, a camp or group of camps is designated to the country whose government was responsible for the establishment and/or operation of the camp regardless of the camp's location, but this principle can be, or it can appear to be, departed from in such cases as where a country's borders or name has changed or it was occupied by a foreign power.
Certain types of camps are excluded from this list, particularly refugee camps operated or endorsed by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Additionally, prisoner-of-war camps that do not also intern non-combatants or civilians are treated under a separate category.
Argentina
During the Dirty War which accompanied the 1976–1983 military dictatorship, there were over 300 places throughout the country that served as secret detention centres, where people were interrogated, tortured, and killed.[1] Prisoners were often forced to hand and sign over property, in acts of individual, rather than official and systematic, corruption. Small children who were taken with their relatives, and babies born to female prisoners later killed, were frequently given for adoption to politically acceptable, often military, families. This is documented by a number of cases dating since the 1990s in which adopted children have identified their real families.[2][3]
These were relatively small secret detention centres rather than actual camps. The peak years were 1976–78. According to the report of
Australia
World War I
During World War I, 2,940 German and Austrian men were interned in ten different camps in Australia. Almost all of the men listed as being Austrians were from the Croatian coastal region of Dalmatia, then under Austrian rule.[citation needed]
In 1915 many of the smaller camps in Australia closed, with their inmates transferred to larger camps. The largest camp was Holsworthy Internment Camp at Holsworthy.[5] Families of the interned men were placed in a camp near Canberra.[citation needed]
World War II
During World War II, internment camps were established at
Modern day
The Department of Immigration and Border Protection currently jointly manages two immigration centres on Nauru and Manus Islands with the host governments of Nauru and Papua New Guinea, for the indefinite detention of asylum seekers attempting to reach Australia by boat. The claims of the asylum seekers to refugee status are processed in these centres. They are a part of the Australian government's policy that asylum seekers attempting to reach Australia by boat will never be permitted to settle in Australia, even if they are found to be refugees, but may be settled in other countries. The clear intention of the Australian government's policy is to deter asylum seekers attempting to reach Australia by boat. The great majority of boats come from Indonesia, which is used as a convenient jumping-off point for asylum seekers from other countries who want to reach Australia.
These centres are not United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees-endorsed refugee camps,[7] and the operation of these facilities has caused controversy, such as allegations of torture and other breaches of human rights.[8]
Austria-Hungary
World War I (Austria-Hungary)
Starting in 1914, 16 camps were built in the Austrian regions of Lower Austria, Upper Austria, Salzburg and Styria.[citation needed] The majority of prisoners came from Russia, Italy, Serbia and Romania.[citation needed] Citizens deemed enemies of the state were displaced from their homes and sent to camps throughout the Austro-Hungarian Empire.[9] In addition of Internierungslager (internment camp) for civilians of enemy states, Austria-Hungary incarcerated over one million Allied prisoners of war.[10]
Austria
- Braunau in Bohemia (today: Broumov in the Czech Republic), formed on 11. June 1915. Housed Serbian and Russian POWs and civilian internees, including underage Serbian children.[11]
- Mauthausen, formed 22. September 1914. Housed Serbian and Italian POWs and Serbian civilian internees.[11]
- Aschach an der Donau, Housed Serbian and Montenegrin POW officers and soldiers and civilian internees.[11]
- Drosendorf internment camp
- Grossau internment camp
- Heinrichsgrün (today: Jindřichovice Czech Republic), formed beginning of June 1915, received first internees 17. June 1915. Housed Russian, Italian, Montenegrin and Serbian POWs and Montenegrin and Serbian civilian internees.[11]
- Illmau internment camp - in the Waldviertel
- Katzenau - The largest internment camp in the territory of the monarchy, located on the right bank of the Danube near Linz, was used as an internment camp for civilians after Italy entered the war.[12]
- Karlstein an der Thaya internment camp
- Kirchberg an der Wild internment camp - in the Zwettl district
- Markl internment camp - In Windigsteig in the Waldviertel region
- Neulengbach internment camp
- Sittmannshof internment camp - located near Loibes in Lower Austria's Waldviertel region between 1915 and 1916.
- Steinklamm internment camp - located in the municipality of Rabenstein an der Pielach in Lower Austria.
- Thalerhof internment camp - Between 1914 and 1917, around 30,000 people from Eastern Europe (mainly Ukrainians) were interned in the Thalerhof camp near Feldkirchen, south of Graz.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Hungary
- Arad (today in Romania)
- Sopronnyék (today: Samersdorf, Austria), formed on 5. April 1915. Housed Serbian and Montenegrin POWs and civilian internees, including underage children.[11]
- Boldogasszony (today: Frauerkirchen, Austria), formed in February 1915. Housed Russian, Italian, Romanian, Serbian and Montenegrin POWs and Serbian and Montenegrin civilian internees.[11]
- Budapest
- Cegléd
- Csót
- Esztergom
- Győr
- Keczkemét
- Kenyérmező
- Nagymegyer (today Veľký Meder Slovakia)
- Nezsider - The Nezsider concentration camp in Hungary, about 17,000 internees, mostly from Serbia and Montenegro, were held throughout the war.[13]
- Tápiósüly (today part of Sülysáp) - internment camp for civilians, including women and children, 45 km East of Budapest[12]
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnian war
In a UN report, 381 out of 677 alleged camps have been corroborated and verified, involving all warring factions during the
Serb controlled | Croat controlled | Bosniak controlled |
---|---|---|
|
|
Bulgaria
World War I (Bulgaria)
During World War I, Bulgaria was part of the Central Powers with Germany, Austria Hungary and Turkey. The Bulgarians established their largest prison camps in Sofia as well as smaller working camps across the kingdom but also military prison camps in Bulgarian occupied Serbia.[20]
- Dobritch (Bazargic)
- Gorno Panicherevo - Located near Stara Zagora, holding prisoners of war and Serbian civilian internees, including women, children, a French school teacher and 84 Orthodox priests (according to Red Cross inspection of 11 May 1917)[21]
- Haskovo - This prison camp held both Serbian prisoners of war and civilian internees,[20] including women, children, and priests.[21]
- Orhanie (today called Botevgrad)[22] held both prisoners of war and civilian internees, mostly Serbian but also Russian.[21]
- Philippopolis - The camp was established on the site of a former cholera hospital and incarcerated approximately 5,250 Serbian, British, and French with a majority of Serbian civilians.[20]
- Rakhovo (today Slovakia)
- Sliven - Sliven held approximately 19,900 Serbian, Romanian, Russian, British, and French prisoners, including sixteen Serbian Orthodox priests.[20]
- Sofia - The Bulgarian army maintained three prison camps around the city, holding a total of 20,000 prisoners of war and civilian internees.[20]
Bulgarian occupied Serbia
- Niš[20]
- Struga (today North Macedonia) - In Bulgarian-occupied province of Monastir in southwestern Serbia.[20]
Cambodia
The
Canada
World War I (Canada)
Ukrainian Canadian internment
In World War I, 8,579 male "aliens of enemy nationality" were interned, including 5,954
Camps and relocation centres elsewhere in Canada
There were internment camps near
About 250 people worked as guards at the Amherst, Nova Scotia camp at Park and Hickman streets from April 1915 to September 1919. The prisoners, including Leon Trotsky, cleared land around the experimental farm and built the pool in Dickey Park.[28]
World War II (Canada)
During the World War II, the Canadian government interned people of German, Italian and Japanese ancestry, besides citizens of other origins it deemed dangerous to national security. This included both
- The Minister of Justice, if satisfied that, with a view to preventing any particular person from acting in a manner prejudicial to the public safety or the safety of the State, it is necessary to do so, may, notwithstanding anything in these regulations, make an order [...] directing that he be detained by virtue of an order made under this paragraph, be deemed to be in legal custody.
Internment of Jewish refugees
European refugees who had managed to escape the Nazis and made it to Britain, were rounded up as "enemy aliens" in 1940. Many were interned on the
German Canadian internment
During the Second World War, 850
Many German Canadians interned in
756 German sailors, mostly captured in East Asia were sent from camps in India to Canada in June 1941 (Camp 33).[31]
By 19 April 1941, 61 prisoners had made a break for liberty from Canadian internment camps. The escapees included 28 German prisoners who escaped from the internment camp east of Port Arthur, Ontario in April 1941.[32]
Italian Canadian internment
On 10 June 1940, Italy joined the war on the Axis side. After that, Italian Canadians were heavily scrutinized. Openly fascist organizations were deemed illegal while individuals with fascist inclinations were arrested, most often without warrants. Organizations seen as openly fascist also had properties confiscated without warrants. A provision under the Canadian War Measures Act was immediately enacted by Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King. Named the Defence of Canada Regulations, it allowed government authorities to take the necessary measures to protect the country from internal threats and enemies. The same afternoon that Italy joined the Axis powers, Italian consular and embassy officials were asked to leave as soon as physically possible. Canada, which was heavily involved in the war effort on the Allies' side, saw the Italian communities as a breeding ground of likely internal threats and a haven of conceivable spy networks helping the fascist Axis nations of Italy and Germany. Though many Italians were anti-fascist and no longer politically involved with their homeland, this did not stop 600–700 Italians from being sent to internment camps throughout Canada.[33][34][35][36]
The first of these Italian prisoners were sent to Camp Petawawa, in the Ottawa River Valley. By October 1940 the round up had already been completed. Italian Canadian Montrealer, Mario Duliani wrote "The City Without Women" about his life in the internment camp Petawawa during World War II; it is a personal account of the struggles of the time. Throughout the country Italians were investigated by
After the war, resentment and suspicion of the Italian communities still lingered. Laval Fortier, commissioner for overseas immigration after the war, wrote: "The Italian South Peasant is not the type we are looking for in Canada. His standard of living, his way of life, even his civilization seem so different that I doubt if he could ever become an asset to our country".
Japanese Canadian internment and relocation centres
During World War II, Canada interned residents of Japanese ancestry. Over 75% were Canadian nationals and they were vital in key areas of the economy, notably the fishery and also logging and berry farming. Exile took two forms: relocation centres for families and relatively well-off individuals who were a low security threat, and internment camps which were for single men, the less well-off, and those deemed to be a security risk. After the war, many did not return to the Coast because of bitter feelings as to their treatment, and fears of further hostility from non-Japanese citizens; of those that returned only about 25% regained confiscated property and businesses. Most remained in other parts of Canada, notably certain parts of the British Columbia Interior and in the neighbouring province of Alberta.
Camps and relocation centres in the West Kootenay and Boundary regions
Internment camps, called "relocation centres", were at
Self-supporting centres in the Lillooet-Fraser Canyon region
A different kind of camp, known as a self-supporting centre, was found in other regions.
Channel Islands
Chile
- Concentration camps were used during the Selk'nam genocide.
- Concentration camps existed throughout Chile during Rettig report).[46]
Some of the detention centers in Chile in this period:
In Santiago, Chile
|
In the Atacama Desert | Near Tierra Del Fuego
|
Other Areas |
---|---|---|---|
Estadio Nacional de Chile (National Stadium)
|
Chacabuco | Dawson Island | Puchuncaví |
Estadio Chile (now Víctor Jara Stadium) | Pisagua Prison Camp
|
Ritoque | |
Villa Grimaldi | Esmeralda (training ship)
| ||
Tres Álamos | Tejas Verdes | ||
Venda Sexy (aka "La Discothèque") | |||
Casa de José Domingo Cañas | |||
Londres 38 | |||
Cuartel Simón Bolívar |
People's Republic of China
Laogai
Falun Gong
The
There are also accusations[by whom?] that Chinese labor-camps[55] produce goods which are often sold in foreign countries with the profits going to the PRC government. The products include everything from green tea to industrial engines to coal dug from mines.[56]
There have been reports of
Xinjiang
As of 2018[update] at least 120,000 members of China's Muslim Uyghur minority were held in mass-detention camps, termed by Chinese authorities "re-education camps", which aim to change the political thinking of detainees, their identities and religious beliefs.[62][63] According to Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, as many as 1 million people have been detained in these camps,[64] which are located in the Xinjiang region.[65] International reports state that as many as 3 million Uyghurs and other Muslim minorities may have been detained China's re-education camps in the Xinjiang region.[66]
Croatia
World War II (Croatia)
An estimated 320,000–340,000 Serbs, 30,000 Croatian Jews and 30,000 Roma were killed during the Independent State of Croatia, including between 77,000 and 99,000 Serbs, Bosniaks, Croats, Jews and Roma killed in the Jasenovac concentration camp.[67][68]
Yugoslav wars
- Kerestinec prison[69]
- Lora prison camp, Split
- Ovčara camp
Cuba
Cuban War of Independence
After
He was made
Weyler's "reconcentration" policy had another important effect. Although it made Weyler's military objectives easier to accomplish, it had devastating political consequences. Although the Spanish Conservative government supported Weyler's tactics wholeheartedly, the Liberals denounced them vigorously for their toll on the Cuban civilian population. In the propaganda war waged in the United States, Cuban émigrés made much of Weyler's inhumanity to their countrymen and won the sympathy of broad groups of the U.S. population to their cause. He was nicknamed "the Butcher" Weyler by journalists like William Randolph Hearst.
Weyler's strategy also backfired militarily due to the rebellion in the
Rule of Fidel Castro
They were used to brainwash the Cuban population and force it to renounce alleged "
Beginning in November 1965, people who were already classified as the "scum of society" started to arrive in the concentration camps by train, bus, truck and other police and military vehicles.[70]
"Social deviants" such as
Denmark
Before and during World War II
- Horserød camp – established during World War I as a camp for war prisoners in need of treatment, it was used during World War II as an internment camp. It is now an open prison.
- Frøslev Prison Camp – established during World War II as an internment camp by the Danish government in order to avoid deportation of Danish citizens to Germany. Used after the war to house Nazi collaborators and later students of a continuation high school located inside the camp.
After World War II
Denmark received about 240,000 refugees from Germany and other countries after the war. They were put into camps guarded by the reestablished army. Contact between Danes and the refugees were very limited and strictly enforced. About 17,000 died in the camps due to injuries and illness resulting from their escape from Germany or poor camp conditions.[72] Known camps were
- Dragsbæklejren – a base for seaplanes, later converted into an internment camp for refugees. It is now used by the army[73]
- Gedhus – located on an area which now is home to Karup Airport
- Grove – located on an area which now is home to Karup Airport
- Rye Flyveplads – a small airfield in Jutland[74]
- Kløvermarken – is now a park in Copenhagen
- Oksbøl Refugee Camp – now belongs to the Danish Army
- Skallerup Klit – was developed into an area for summer houses
Finland
Finnish Civil War
In the Finnish Civil War, the victorious White Army and German troops captured about 80,000 Red prisoners by the end of the war on 5 May 1918. Once the White terror subsided, a few thousand including mainly small children and women, were set free, leaving 74,000–76,000 prisoners. The largest prison camps were Suomenlinna (an archipelago just offshore from the center of Helsinki), Hämeenlinna, Lahti, Viipuri, Ekenäs, Riihimäki and Tampere. The Senate made the decision to keep these prisoners detained until each person's guilt could be examined. A law for a Tribunal of Treason was enacted on 29 May after a long dispute between the White army and the Senate of the proper trial method to adopt. The start of the heavy and slow process of trials was delayed further until 18 June 1918. The Tribunal did not meet all the standards of neutral justice, due to the mental atmosphere of White Finland after the war. Approximately 70,000 Reds were convicted, mainly for complicity to treason. Most of the sentences were lenient, however, and many got out on parole. 555 persons were sentenced to death, of whom 113 were executed. The trials revealed also that some innocent persons had been imprisoned.[75]
Combined with the severe food shortage, the mass imprisonment led to high mortality rates in the camps, and the catastrophe was compounded by a mentality of punishment, anger and indifference on the part of the victors. Many prisoners felt that they were abandoned also by their own leaders, who had fled to Russia. The condition of the prisoners had weakened rapidly during May, after food supplies had been disrupted during the Red Guards' retreat in April, and a high number of prisoners had been captured already during the first half of April in Tampere and Helsinki. As a consequence, 2,900 starved to death or died in June as a result of diseases caused by malnutrition and Spanish flu, 5,000 in July, 2,200 in August, and 1,000 in September. The mortality rate was highest in the Ekenäs camp at 34%, while in the others the rate varied between 5% and 20%. In total, between 11,000 and 13,500 Finns perished. The dead were buried in mass graves near the camps.[76] The majority of the prisoners were paroled or pardoned by the end of 1918 after the victory of the Western powers in World War I also caused a major change in the Finnish domestic political situation. There were 6,100 Red prisoners left at the end of the year,[77] 100 in 1921 (at the same time civil rights were given back to 40,000 prisoners) and in 1927 the last 50 prisoners were pardoned by the social democratic government led by Väinö Tanner. In 1973, the Finnish government paid reparations to 11,600 persons imprisoned in the camps after the civil war.[78]
World War II (Continuation War)
When the
Population in the Finnish camps:
- 13,400 – 31 December 1941
- 21,984 – 1 July 1942
- 15,241 – 1 January 1943
- 14,917 – 1 January 1944
France
Devil's Island
The Devil's Island was a network of prisons in French Guiana that ran from 1852 to 1953 used to intern petty criminals and political prisoners in which up to 75% of the 80,000 interned perished.
Algeria
During the French conquest of Algeria, which began in 1830 was and fully completed by 1903, the French used the camps to hold Arabs, Berbers and Turks they had forcibly removed from fertile areas of land, in order to replace them by primarily French, Spanish, and Maltese settlers.[81] The conquest led to the deaths of between 500,000 and 1 million of an estimated 3 million Algerians from famine, disease, and war.[82] Historian Ben Kiernan wrote on the conquest of Algeria: "By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830,"[83]
During the
In 1959, Michel Rocard denounced the appalling conditions of many of those camps in a report, leaked and published in Le Monde.[86] As a consequence the camps were modernized and became part of a large rural renovation program called Les Milles Villages (One Thousand Villages).[87]
Spanish Republicans
After the end of
After the proclamation by Marshal
Vichy France
During
In addition, in areas which Germany formally annexed from France, such as
The Vichy French also ran camps in North and West Africa, and possibly French Somaliland and Madagascar. The following are the locations of concentration camps, POW camps, and internment camps in (Vichy) West and (Vichy) North Africa:
The camps were located at:
West Africa:
North Africa:
Also camps connected to the Laconia incident:
- Mediouna (near Casablanca)
- Qued-Zen, Morocco (near Casablanca)
- Sidi-el-Avachi, Morocco (near Azemmour)
The following camps which are under investigation:
- Taza
- Fes
- Oujda
- Sidi-bel-Abbes
- Berguent
- Settat
- Sidi-el-Ayachi
- Qued Zem
- Mecheria
The camps at Conakry, Timbuctoo, and Kankan had no running water, no electricity, no gas, no electric light, no sewers, no toilets and no baths. The prisoners (mainly British and Norwegian) were housed in native accommodation—mud huts and houses, and a tractor shed. The Vichy French authorities in West Africa called these camps "concentration camps".
Germany
German South West Africa, 1904–1908
Between 1904 and 1908, following the German suppression of the
- Shark Island Concentration Camp[93]
- Windhoek Concentration Camp
- Okahandja Concentration Camp
- Karibib
- Swakopmund Concentration Camp
- Omaruru[94]
World War I (Germany)
In World War I male (and some female) civilian nationals of the Allies caught by the outbreak of war on the territory of the Germany were interned. The camps (Internierungslager) included those at:
- Ruhleben, for up to 4,500 internees, on a horse race-track near Berlin.[95]
- Holzminden in Lower Saxony, for up to 10,000 internees.
- Havelberg, in Saxony-Anhalt, for 4,500 internees, including nearly 400 British Indians.
- Celle Castle in Lower Saxony.
- Rastatt Camp, for French civilians.
Nazi era
On 30 January 1933
The third phase started after the occupation of Poland in 1939. In the first few months Polish intellectuals were detained, including nearly the entire staff of
Initially, Jews in the occupied countries were interned either in other KZ, but predominantly in
Another category of internment camp in Nazi Germany was the
Finally there was one category of internment camp, called Ilag in which Allied (mainly British and American) civilians were held. These civilians had been caught behind front lines by the rapid advance of the German armies, or the sudden entry of the United States into the war. In these camps the Germans abided by the rules of the Third Geneva Convention. Deaths resulted from sickness or simply old age.
After World War II, internment camps were used by the Allied occupying forces to hold suspected Nazis, usually using the facilities of previous Nazi camps. They were all closed down by 1949. In
Hong Kong
World War II (Japanese)
During the Second World War the Japanese, during their occupation of Hong Kong, interned enemy nationals (mostly British, Canadian, American and Dutch), in several internment camps in Hong Kong. Camps existed at:
- Sham Shui Po – A concentration camp was maintained here for most of the duration of the Second World War.
- Stanley Internment Camp – Located primarily on the grounds of St. Stephen's College. Shortly after surrendering, the Imperial Japanese Army broke into the St. Stephen's (which had served as a military hospital during the battle) and murdered the wounded soldiers of the Allied forces. The Japanese later merged the college with part of Stanley Prison to form the full Stanley Internment Camp.
- Stanley Prison – Located primarily in the Officer's housing blocks at the prison. During the Japanese occupation, the grounds of the prison were used as part of Stanley Internment Camp. Nearly 600 prisoners of war and civilians, killed by the Japanese during the occupation, are buried in the nearby Stanley War Cemetery (which is NOT part of the prison itself but adjacent to it).
India
During both World Wars the British interned enemy nationals (mostly Germans). In 1939 this also included refugees from the Nazis as well as Germans who had acquired British citizenship, in India. Camps existed at:
World War I (India)
- Ahmednagar, also for internees from German East Africa; Sections A abysmally overcrowded with more than 1000 inmates in "medically condemned" old barracks and B for privileged (read: monied) prisoners and officers. In 1915 a parole camp was set up.
- Diyatalawa (Ceylon)
- Belgaum for women; set up late 1915; March 1917: 214 inmates
- Kataphar for families
World War II (India)
- Ahmednagar (Central Internment Camp) inmates transferred to Dehradun February 1941.
- Diyatalawa (Ceylon). Aliens from Ceylon, Hong Kong and Singapore. Many German sailors, 756 of them sent to Canada in June 1941 (Camp 33); other males to Dehradun, females to parole camps, when camp was closed 23. February 1942
- Deolali from February 1941, later also transferred to Dehradun. 11 August 1941: 604 Germans.
- Dehradun main camp for males from September 1941. Sensibly separated in Wings 1: pro-Nazi, 2: anti-Nazi, 3: Italians. From this camp the SS mountaineer Heinrich Harrer escaped to Tibet.
- Yercaud for females from Madras Presidency. Summer 1941: 98 inmates, closed late 1942.
- Ft. Williams (Calcutta), army camp, closed early 1940, males were sent to Ahmednagar, females to Katapaharparole camp.
- Camp 17 initially in Ramgarh (Bihar), from July 1942 at Deoli (Rajputana). For the surviving internees from the Dutch Indies.
- Hazaribagh: in then Bihar; now in Jharkhand
- Smaller Parole Camps at Poona:
Most internees were deported late 1946. Germans shipped to Hamburg were sent to the former Neuengamme concentration camp for de-Nazification.[31][104]
Sino-Indian War
During the Sino-Indian War in 1962, the Indian government interned and incarcerated 3000 Chinese-Indian civilians in the desert internment camp in Deoli, Rajasthan,[105][106] built by the colonial authorities in 1942 as a POW camp for Japanese, German, and Italian prisoners of war during the Second World War. The Indian government has not apologised or offered compensation to the internees as of 2020.[107][108]
Ireland
By February 1923, under the
Conditions on the prison ship Argenta were "unbelievable", says author Denise Kleinrichert who penned the hidden history of the 1920s "floating gulag".
Cloistered below decks in cages which held 50 internees each, the prisoners were forced to use broken toilets which overflowed frequently into their communal area. Deprived of tables, the already weakened men ate off the contaminated floor, frequently succumbing to disease as a result.
Courtesy of author Denise Kleinrichert's lobbying efforts, the files of all the internees—most of them named in an appendix to her book—are now available for viewing at the Public Record Office of Northern Ireland.[citation needed]
World War II (Ireland)
During World War II, known in Ireland as the "Emergency", "K-Lines" was the part of the Curragh Camp used as an internment camp. It was used to house German soldiers, mainly navy personnel stranded in neutral Ireland. A separate section was created for Allied military, mostly British soldiers, who entered Irish territory in violation of the neutrality policy. No.1 Internment camp, that had been built by the British pre-1922, held republicans who had a suspected link to the IRA.[110]
Later in the war, Gormanston Camp, near Balbriggan, was used to house eleven Allied airmen from operational flights, but eight were released in June 1944; three Germans were kept there for a short period in 1945.[111]
Name of the camp | Date of | Estimated number of | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Establishment | Liberation | Prisoners | Deaths | |
HMS Argenta near Belfast Lough, Northern Ireland | 1920 | 1925 | 265 | Unknown. Some from hunger strikes |
Curragh Camp ("No.1") near The Curragh, County Kildare, Ireland | 1939 | 1945 | - | - |
Gormanston Camp near Balbriggan, Ireland | 1939 | 1945 | 14 | - |
Isle of Man
World War I (Isle of Man)
During World War I the United Kingdom government
.World War II (Isle of Man)
During World War II the Isle of Man was used as the primary site for the internment of civilian enemy aliens, both male and female. The camps were predominantly in commandeered hotels and boarding houses in seaside towns on the island. Around the camps for males, barbed wire fences were erected and military guard was brought over from England. The low-risk internees were, however, allowed to work on farms on the island and to go on excursions such as for walks or to swim in the sea. The camps were in operation from 27 May 1940 to 5 September 1945.[113] The largest recorded number of internees on the island was roughly 14,000, reached in August 1940.[114]
There were ten camps on the island:
- Mooragh Camp, Ramsey
- Peveril Camp, Peel
- Onchan Camp, Onchan
- Rushen Camp, Port St Mary and Port Erin (for female and family internees only)
- Central Camp, Douglas
- Palace Camp, Douglas
- Metropole Camp, Douglas
- Hutchinson Camp, Douglas
- Granville Camp, Douglas
- Sefton Camp, Douglas
Italy
Name of the camp | Date of establishment |
Date of liberation |
Estimated number of | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Prisoners | Deaths | |||
Baranello near Campobasso | ||||
Campagna near Salerno | 15 June 1940 | 19 September 1943 | ||
Casoli near Chieti | July 1940 | September 1943 | ||
Chiesanuova near Padua | June 1942 | |||
Cremona | ||||
Ferramonti di Tarsia near Cosenza | Summer 1940 | 4 September 1943 | 3,800 | |
Finale Emila near Modena | ||||
Giado | ||||
Gonars near Palmanova | March 1942 | 8 September 1943 | 7,000 | 453; >500 |
Lipari | ||||
Malo near Venice
|
||||
Molat | ||||
Monigo near Treviso
|
June 1942 | |||
Montechiarugolo near Parma | ||||
Ponza | ||||
Potenza | ||||
Rab[115] (on the island of Rab) | July 1942 | 11 September 1943 | 15,000 | 2,000 |
Renicci di Anghiari, near Arezzo | October 1942 | |||
Sepino near Campobasso | ||||
Treviso | ||||
Urbisaglia | ||||
Vestone | ||||
Vinchiaturo, near Campobasso | ||||
Visco , near Palmanova
|
Winter 1942 |
Israel
Japan
World War II (Japan)
Japan conquered south-east Asia in a series of victorious campaigns over a few months from December 1941. By March 1942 many civilians, particularly westerners in the region's European colonies, found themselves behind enemy lines and were subsequently interned by the Japanese.
The nature of civilian internment varied from region to region. Some civilians were interned soon after invasion; in other areas the process occurred over many months. In total, approximately 130,000 Allied civilians were interned by the Japanese during this period of occupation. The exact number of internees will never be known as records were often lost, destroyed, or simply not kept.
The backgrounds of the internees were diverse. There was a large proportion of Dutch from the Dutch East Indies, but they also included Americans, British, and Australians. They included missionaries and their families, colonial administrators, and business people. Many had been living in the colonies for decades. Single women had often been nuns, missionaries, doctors, teachers and nurses.
Civilians interned by the Japanese were treated marginally better than the prisoners of war, but their death rates were the same. Although they had to work to run their own camps, few were made to labour on construction projects. The Japanese devised no consistent policies or guidelines to regulate the treatment of the civilians. Camp conditions and the treatment of internees varied from camp to camp. The general experience, however, was one of malnutrition, disease, and varying degrees of harsh discipline and brutality from the Japanese guards. Some Dutch women were forced into sexual slavery.[116][117]
The camps varied in size from four people held at Pangkalpinang in Sumatra to the 14,000 held in Tjihapit in Java. Some were segregated according to gender or race, there were also many camps of mixed gender. Some internees were held at the same camp for the duration of the war, and others were moved about. The buildings used to house internees were generally whatever was available, including schools, warehouses, universities, hospitals, and prisons.
Organisation of the internment camps varied by location. The Japanese administered some camps directly; others were administered by local authorities under Japanese control. Korean POWs of the Japanese were also used as camp guards. Some of the camps were left for the internees to self-govern. In the mixed and male camps, management often fell to the men who were experienced in administration before their internment. In the women's camps the leaders tended to be the women who had held a profession prior to internment. Boys over the age of ten were generally considered to be men by the Japanese and were often separated from their mothers to live and work in male camps.
One of the most famous concentration camps operated by the Japanese during World War II was at the University of Santo Tomas in Manila, the Philippines, the Santo Tomas Internment Camp. The Dominican university was expropriated by the Japanese at the beginning of the occupation, and was used to house mostly American civilians, but also British subjects, for the duration of the war. There, men, women and children suffered from malnutrition and poor sanitation. The camp was liberated in 1945.
The liberation of the camps was not a uniform process. Many camps were liberated as the forces were recapturing territory. For other internees, freedom occurred many months after the surrender of the Japanese, and in the Dutch East Indies, liberated internees faced the uncertainty of the
Civilian internees were generally disregarded in official histories, and few received formal recognition. Ironically, however, civilian internees have become the subject of several influential books and films. Agnes Newton Keith's account of internment on Berhala Island in Sandakan Harbour and Batu Lintang camp, Kuching, Three Came Home (1947), was one of the first of the memoirs. More recent publications include Jeanne Tuttle and Jolanthe Zelling's "Mammie's Journal of My Childhood" (2005); (Shirley Fenton-Huie's The Forgotten Ones (1992) and Jan Ruff O'Herne's Fifty Years of Silence (1997). Nevil Shute's novel A Town Like Alice was filmed in 1956, and J. G. Ballard's Empire of the Sun in 1987. Other films and television dramas have included Tenko and Paradise Road.[118][119][120]
Korea, Republic of
During the 1980s, South Korea had multiple internment camps, including the Brothers Home, which housed thousands of prisoners in Busan.[121]
Libya
The history of Libya as an Italian colony started in the 1910s and it lasted until February 1947, when Italy officially lost all of the colonies of the former Italian Empire.
Fighting intensified after the accession to power in Italy of the dictator
Soon afterwards, the colonial administration began the wholesale deportation of the people of Cyrenaica to deny the rebels the support of the local population. The forced migration of more than 100,000 people ended in concentration camps in Suluq- ALa byer and Al Agheila where tens of thousands died in squalid conditions. It is estimated (by Arab historians) that the number of Libyans who died – killed either through combat or mainly through starvation, execution and disease – is at a minimum of 80,000 or even up to one third of the Cyrenaican population.[122]
Mexico
During WW2 the US pressured Mexico to deport Japanese Mexicans to the US for internment and when Mexico refused, pressured Mexico to displace and intern them.[123][124]
Montenegro
The fort on the island of
.During the 1991 to 1995 Croatian War of Independence, the Yugoslav People's Army organized the Morinj camp near Kotor, Montenegro.
Netherlands
World War I (Netherlands)
During World War I, all foreign soldiers and ship crews that illegally entered the neutral Netherlands were interned in a specific camp based on their nationality (to avoid conflict). By far the largest camp was the one for British sailors and soldiers in
After a revolt in 1926 in the
World War II (Netherlands)
Just before World War II engulfed the Netherlands, a camp was built in 1939 at
Other camps were
After the war, the Dutch government launched Operation Black Tulip and started to gather the civil population of German background in concentration camps near the German border, especially Nijmegen, in order to deport them from the country. In total around 15% of the German population in the Netherlands was deported.
Numerous improvised and official camps were set up after the war, to keep Dutch who were suspected of collaboration with the Germans. Kamp Westerbork at one point housed some Jews as well as suspected collaborators and Germans. In these camps, a history of maltreatment by the guards, sometimes leading to death, has been collected.[126]
Indonesian National Revolution
During the Indonesian National Revolution, the war between the Netherland and Indonesia after World War II, the Dutch once again set up internment camps on territory they controlled in Indonesia, to detain Indonesian nationalists and captured members of the Indonesian armed forces.
New Zealand
In World War I German civilians living in New Zealand were interned in camps on
Norway
During World War II, the Beisfjord massacre took place at the "No. 1 camp Beisfjord" (Lager I Beisfjord).[127]
Korea, Democratic People's Republic of
Concentration camps came into being in North Korea in the wake of the country's liberation from Japanese colonial rule at the end of World War II. Those persons considered "adversary class forces", such as landholders, Japanese collaborators, religious devotees and the families of people who migrated to the South, were rounded up and detained in large facilities. Additional camps were later established in the late 1950s and 1960s in order to incarcerate the political victims of power struggles along with their families as well as overseas Koreans who migrated to the North. Later, the number of camps saw a marked increase with the cementing of the Kim Il Sung dictatorship and the Kim Jong Il succession. About a dozen concentration camps were in operation until the early 1990s, but some of them were closed and merged into the remaining six camps for the purpose of maintaining better secrecy and control.[128]
North Korea is known to operate six concentration camps, currently accommodating around 200,000 prisoners. These camps, officially called Kwan-li-so (Korean for "control and management center"), are large political penal-labor colonies in secluded mountain valleys of central and northeastern North Korea.[129][130] Once condemned as political criminals in North Korea, the defendants and three generations of their families (including children and old people) are incarcerated in one of the camps without trial and cut off from all outside contact. Prisoners reportedly work 14-hour days at hard labor and they are also forced to undergo ideological re-education. Starvation, torture and disease are commonplace.[131] Political criminals invariably receive life sentences.[132]
Concentration camps in operation | Area | Prisoners |
---|---|---|
Kwan-li-so No. 14 Kaechon | 155 km2 (60 mi2) | 15,000 |
Kwan-li-so No. 15 Yodok | 378 km2 (146 mi2) | 46,500 |
Kwan-li-so No. 16 Hwasong | 549 km2 (212 mi2) | 10,000 |
Kwan-li-so No. 18 Pukchang | 73 km2 (28 mi2) | 50,000 |
Kwan-li-so No. 22 Hoeryong | 225 km2 (87 mi2) | 50,000 |
Kwan-li-so No. 25 Chongjin | 0.25 km2 (0.1 mi2) | 3,000+ |
Former concentration camps | Date closed |
---|---|
Kwan-li-so No. 11 Kyongsong | October 1989 |
Kwan-li-so No. 12 Onsong | May 1987 |
Kwan-li-so No. 13 Chongsong | December 1990 |
Kwan-li-so No. 26 Hwachon | January 1991 |
Kwan-li-so No. 27 Chonma | November 1990 |
Kang Chol-hwan is a former prisoner of Yodok concentration camp and has written a book (The Aquariums of Pyongyang) about his time in the camp.[133] Shin Dong-hyuk is the only person known to have escaped from Kaechon internment camp and gave an account of his time in the camp.[134]
Ottoman Empire and Turkey
Concentration camps known as Deir ez-Zor camps operated in the heart of the Syrian desert during 1915–1916, where many thousands of Armenian refugees were forced into death marches during the Armenian genocide. The United States vice-consul in Aleppo, Jesse B. Jackson, estimated that Armenian refugees, as far east as Deir ez-Zor and south of Damascus, numbered 150,000, all of whom were virtually destitute.[135]
Paraguay
Shortly before his absolute 26-year rule of
Poland
From 1934 to 1939 the government of
During
- Central Labour Camp Potulice
- Central Labour Camp Jaworzno
- Zgoda labour camp
- Łambinowice
Attempts were later made to bring two of the camp commandants to justice; Salomon Morel and Czesław Gęborski. Gęborski spent 22 months in prison and died during his judicial process.
Romania
The Kingdom of Romania established the Bogdanovka concentration camp for Jews in Transnistria Governorate.
Russia and the Soviet Union
In
The first Soviet camps were organized in June 1918 for the detention of Czechoslovak soldiers.[139] The Solovki prison camp existed since 1923.
In the Soviet Union, labour penitentiary camps were simply called camps, almost always plural ("lagerya"). These were used as forced labor camps, and they had small percentages of political prisoners. After Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's book titled The Gulag Archipelago was published, they became known to the rest of the world as Gulags, after the branch of the NKVD (state security service) that managed them. (In the Russian language, the term is used to denote the whole system, rather than individual camps.)
In addition to what is sometimes referred to as the Gulag proper (consisting of the "corrective labor camps") there were "corrective labor colonies", originally intended for prisoners with short sentences, and "special resettlements" of deported peasants. At its peak, the system held a combined total of 2,750,000 prisoners. In all, perhaps more than 18,000,000 people passed through the Gulag system in 1929–1953, and millions more were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[140][141][142]
Of the 5.7 million
After World War II, some 3,000,000 German POWs and civilians were sent to Soviet labor camps, as part of war reparations by forced labor.[citation needed]
After the 1990s
During the Second Chechen War, the Russian forces used the Chernokozovo internment camp as the main center of their filtration camp system in Chechnya from 1999 to 2003 to suppress Chechnya's independence movement. Tens of thousands of Chechens were arrested and detained in these camps. According to Chechen witnesses, the inmates were beaten while girls as young as 13 were raped by Russian soldiers.[144][145]
Since early 2017, there have been reports of
An extensive list of Gulag camps is being compiled based on official sources.
Serbia
During World War II (operated by German Gestapo):
- Banjica concentration camp (near Belgrade)
- Sajmište concentration camp (near Belgrade)
- Topovske Šupe(in Belgrade)
- Milišić's brickyard (in Belgrade)
- Crveni krst(in Niš)
- Svilara (Pančevo)
- Paraćin
During the Yugoslav Wars:
- Begejci camp[148]
- Sremska Mitrovica prison(in Sremska Mitrovica)
- Stajićevo camp
During the Kosovo War (operated by KLA):
- Lapušnik prison camp, (near Glogovac)
Slovakia
During the Second World War, the Slovak government made a small number (Nováky, Sereď) of transit camps for Jewish citizens. They were transported to
South Africa
Spain
Although the first modern concentration camps used to systematically dissuade rebels from fighting are usually attributed to the British during the Second Boer War, in the Spanish–American War, forts and camps were used by the Spanish in Cuba to separate rebels from their agricultural support bases. Upwards of 200,000 Cubans died by disease and famine in these environments.[149]
There were also Francoist concentration camps.[150] During the 21st century, immigration detention centers known as CIEs (Centro de Internamiento de Extranjeros) are run by the Spanish Ministry of the Interior.[151] Various civil organizations, such as (APDHA, SOS Racismo and Andalucía Acoge) have appealed to the Spanish Supreme Court to declare the regulations behind the CIEs null and void for violating eight aspects of human rights.[152]
Sri Lanka
In 1900, the British War Office constructed a concentration camp in Diyatalawa to house Boer prisoners captured in the Second Boer War. Initially constructed to house 2,500 prisoners and 1,000 guards and staff, the number of prisoners increased to 5,000.[153][154]
In late 2008, as the
The conditions in the camps were below minimum humanitarian standards.[167][168] There were reports of rape, torture, disappearances and arbitrary detention within the camps.[159][160][169] In early May 2009, days before the civil war ended, the government gave assurances that over 80% of the displaced people would be resettled by the end of 2009.[170] As the government failed to honour this commitment international concern grew over the slow pace of resettlement.[171][172] The resettlement process accelerated in late 2009 but it was not until September 2012, four years after they were established, the camps were officially closed.[173][174]
Sweden
During the Second World War, the Swedish government operated eight internment camps.
- The most famous is probably Storsien outside Kalix in Norrbotten where about 300–370 communists, syndicalists and pacifists were kept during the winter 1939–1940.[175][176]
- Naartijärvi east of Luleå
- Öxnered at Vänersborg[177]
- Grytan outside Östersund
- Bercut, a boat for sailors outside Dalarö
- Vindeln: constructed in Västerbotten in 1943
- Stensele: constructed in Västerbotten in 1943
- Lövnäsvallen outside Sveg
In May 1941 a total of ten camps for 3,000–3,500 were planned, but towards the end of 1941 the plans were put on ice and in 1943 the last camp was closed down. All the records were burned. After the war many of those who had been put in the camps had trouble finding work as few wanted to hire "subversive elements".
The Navy had at least one special detainment ship for communists and "troublemakers".
Most of the camps were not labour camps with the exception of Vindeln and Stensele where the internees were used to build a secret airbase.
Foreign soldiers were put in camps in Långmora and Smedsbo, German refugees and deserters in Rinkaby.[178] After the Second World War three camps were used for Baltic refugees from Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia (including 150 Baltic soldiers) at Ränneslätt, Rinkaby and Gälltofta.
Switzerland
During World War II more than 100,000 mainly
- Canton of Luzern. Established in 1940, Wauwilermoos was a penal camp for internees, priorly for Allied soldiers, among them members of the United States Army Air Forces, who were sentenced for attempting to escape from other Swiss camps for interned soldiers, or other offenses. The intolerable conditions at the Wauwilermoos prison camp were later described by numerous former inmates, by various contemporary reports and studies.[182] especially the imposed extremely harsh detention conditions.[180][183]
- Hünenberg;
- Les Diablerets.
In addition, there was as number of regularly internment camps.
United Kingdom
Bermuda
During the
Cyprus
After World War II, British efforts to prevent
England
During World War I Irish republicans were imprisoned in camps in Shrewsbury and Bromyard.[citation needed]
During World War II, initially, refugees who had fled from Germany were also included, as were suspected British
Ireland: pre-1922
During the
Kenya
During the 1954–60 Mau Mau rebellion in Kenya, camps were established to hold suspected rebels. It is unclear how many were held, but estimates range from 80,000[187] to 160,000[188][189] of the Kikuyu population, with 1,090 Mau Mau detainees sentenced to death and executed by hanging.[189][187] Maltreatment is said to have included torture and summary executions.[190][191]
Malaya
Beginning in 1950, under the
Northern Ireland
One of the most famous example of modern internment (and one which made world headlines) occurred in
From 1971 internment began, beginning with the arrest of 342 suspected republican guerrillas and paramilitary members on 9 August. They were held at
Many of those interned were held in a detention facility located at RAF Long Kesh military base, later known as Long Kesh Detention Centre and eventually becoming Her Majesty's Prison Maze, outside Belfast. Internment had previously been used as a means of repressing the Irish Republican Army. It was used between 1939–1945 and 1956–1962. On all these occasions, internment has had a somewhat limited success.
Name of the camp | Date of establishment | Date of liberation | Estimated number of prisoners | Estimated number of deaths |
---|---|---|---|---|
1939 then second use 1956 and third use in 1971 | 1945; second use till 1962 and third use till 1975; imprisonment of people under anti-terrorism laws specific to Northern Ireland continued until the Good Friday Agreement of 1998 | > 1,981[192] | #? Some from Hunger strikes |
Scotland
During the Second World War the British government allowed the
South Africa
The term concentration camp was first used by the British military during the
One such camp was situated at
In contrast to these figures, during the war the British, Colonial and South African forces' casualties included 5,774 killed in action and 13,250 deaths from disease, while the Boers' casualties in the Transvaal and Orange Free State up to December 1901, included 2640 killed in action and 945 deaths from disease.[199]
During World War I, South African troops invaded neighboring
Soviet Russia
During its 1918 invasion of Soviet Russia, the UK built two concentration camps: Mudyug island[200] and Iukang on Ostrovnoy island.[201]
Wales
During World War I, there was a concentration camp in Frongoch, Merionethshire. First German POWs were held here until 1916, then 1,800 Irish political prisoners were held there following the Easter Rising, including Michael Collins. The prisoners were very poorly treated and Frongoch became a breeding ground for Irish revolutionaries.
United States
Indigenous people
Cherokee
The first large-scale confinement of a specific ethnic group in detention centers began in the summer of 1838, when President
Dakota
The
On 26 December 1862 thirty eight Dakota warriors, including We-Chank-Wash-ta-don-pee (often called Chaska), who was pardoned, were hanged with the label of murderers and rapists of civilians rather than 'war criminals' in the largest mass execution in United States history at the order of President Abraham Lincoln, with the remaining 361 prisoners being sent to segregated prison camps in other states just days before the Emancipation Proclamation was issued.[203]
During the winter of 1862-63 more than 1600 Dakota non-combatants, including women, children and the elderly, as well as "mixed-blood" families and Christian and farmer Dakota who had opposed the war, were force-marched to a fenced concentration camp near the base of Fort Snelling, which was built on the Dakota sacred area of Bdóte, at the meeting point of the Minnesota River and the Mississippi River. Living conditions and sanitation were poor, and infectious diseases such as measles struck the camp, killing between an estimated 102 and 300 Dakota.[204] Here the women were separated from the men before being exiled to reservations in neighboring states and Canada. These reservations tended to disregard Native American culture and traditions and their children were placed in boarding schools, which focused on European-based culture and religions.[205]
By 1862, the
Philippines
On 7 December 1901, during the
World War I (United States)
At the height of the First World War, many of German descent became the target of two regulations passed by President Woodrow Wilson.[213] Two of the four main World War I-era internment camps were located in Hot Springs, N.C., and Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia.[214] Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer wrote that "All aliens interned by the government are regarded as enemies, and their property is treated accordingly."
World War II (United States)
In reaction to the
The Fort Lincoln, North Dakota internment camp opened in April 1941 and closed in 1945. It had a peak population of 650. Today (2014) it houses the United Tribes Technical College. Some CCC barracks buildings and two brick army barracks were fenced and used to house the internees. The first internees were Italian and German seamen. 800 Italians arrived, but they were soon sent to Fort Missoula in Montana. The first Japanese American Issei arrived in 1942, but they were also transferred to other camps. The Germans were the only internees left at the camp until February 1945, when 650 more Japanese Americans were brought in. These Japanese Americans had previously renounced their U.S. citizenship and were left waiting to be deported to Japan. The brick buildings remain, but others are gone. A newspaper article from The Bismarck Tribune, 2 March 1946, stated that 200 Japanese were still being held at Fort Lincoln.
Almost 120,000 Japanese Americans and resident Japanese aliens would eventually be removed from their homes and relocated.
About 2,200 Japanese living in South America (mostly in Peru) were transported to the United States and placed in internment camps.[215]
Approximately 5,000 Germans living in several Latin American republics were also removed and transported to the United States and placed in internment camps.[216] In addition, at least 10,905 German Americans were held in more than 50 internment sites throughout the United States and Hawaii.
Political dissidents
Per the Emergency Detention Act (Title II of the McCarran Internal Security Act of 1950), six concentration camps were constructed in 1952 with the expectation that they would need to be used to detain political dissidents in the event that the U.S. government was forced to declare a state of emergency. They were originally intended to hold alleged communists, anti-war activists, civil rights 'militants,' and other dissidents. They were maintained from the 1950s to the 1960s, but they were never used for their intended purpose.[218]
Afghan War and the occupation of Iraq
In 2002, the
Due to the American government's policy of holding detainees indefinitely,[221][222] a number of captives have been held for extended periods without being legally charged, including Ayman Saeed Abdullah Batarfi who was captured in 2001 and released from the Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp in 2009. A document leaked from the International Committee of the Red Cross was published by The New York Times in November 2004, which accused the U.S. military of cruelty "tantamount to torture" against detainees held at the Guantanamo Bay facility.[223][224] In May 2005, the human rights group Amnesty International referred to the Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp as "the Gulag of our times."[225]
In September 2006, after a series of abuses including the rape and murder of prisoners was reported to the public,[226] control of the Baghdad Central Prison was transferred to the Iraqis. Subsequent investigative reports suggest that the United States continued to directly influence and oversee a campaign of torture carried out inside Iraqi facilities even after the handover of Iraq and related facilities was finalized.[227] In March 2013 it was revealed that American officials, under pressure from Afghan officials, reached an agreement after more than a year of negotiations to hand over control of Bagram Theater Internment Facility to the Afghan government. In the deal, Bagram Theater Internment Facility, called "the other Guantanamo," "Guantanamo's evil twin" or "Obama's Gitmo" by human rights groups after reports of systematic abuse,[228] was renamed the Afghan National Detention Facility at Parwan. Additionally, the agreement extended authority for American officials to have say over which detainees could be released from the facility, containing guarantees from the Afghan government that certain detainees would not be released regardless of whether or not they could be tried for circumstances related to their individual detentions. The Afghans formally took over control of other day-to-day operations.[229][230][231] Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp remains open and fully operated by Americans.[232][233][234][235][236][237][238][239][240][241]
Migrants on the Mexico–United States border
In 2018, Donald Trump instituted a "zero tolerance" policy which mandated the criminal prosecution of all adults who were accused of violating immigration laws by immigration authorities.[242][243][244] This policy directly led to the large-scale,[245][246] forcible separation of children and parents arriving at the United States-Mexico border,[247] including those who were seeking asylum from violence in their home countries.[248] Parents were arrested and put into criminal detention, while their children were taken away, classified as unaccompanied alien minors, to be put into child immigrant detention centers.[244][249]
Even though Trump signed an executive order which ostensibly ended the family separation component of his administration's migrant detentions in June 2018, it continued under alternative justifications into 2019.[250]
By the end of 2018, the number of children being held had swelled to a high of nearly 15,000,[251][252] which by August 2019 had been reduced to less than 9,000.[253] In 2019, many experts, including Andrea Pitzer, the author of One Long Night: A Global History of Concentration Camps, have acknowledged the designation of the detention centers as "concentration camps"[254][255] particularly given that the centers, previously cited by Texas officials for more than 150 health violations[256] and reported deaths in custody,[257] reflect a record typical of the history of deliberate substandard healthcare and nutrition in concentration camps.[258]
This family separation policy and the detention facilities again came under scrutiny following a 2021 surge in migrant arrivals.[259]
Even though some organizations have refused to label these facilities "concentration camps",[260][261] hundreds of Holocaust and genocide scholars rejected this refusal via an open letter which was addressed to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.[262][263]
South and North Vietnam
In South Vietnam, the government of Ngo Dinh Diem countered North Vietnamese subversion (including the assassination of over 450 South Vietnamese officials in 1956) by detaining tens of thousands of suspected communists in "political re-education centers." This was a ruthless program that resulted in the incarceration of many non-communists, even though it also resulted in the successful curtailment of communist activity in the country, if only for a time. The North Vietnamese government claimed that over 65,000 individuals were incarcerated and 2,148 individuals were killed in the process by November 1957, but these estimates may be exaggerated.[264]
The Strategic Hamlet Program was a plan to stop the spread of Communism which was implemented between 1961 and 1963 by the government of South Vietnam and US military advisors, the Strategic Hamlet Program was implemented during the Vietnam War. In an attempt to isolate the communists by preventing them from influencing the rural South Vietnamese population, the South Vietnamese government and Us military advisors constructed thousands of new, tightly controlled protected villages or "strategic hamlets". In some cases, people voluntarily moved into these settlements, but in most cases, people were forcibly relocated, and as a result, these settlements have been described as internment camps. The rural peasants would be provided with protection, economic support, and aid by the government, thereby strengthening their relationship with the South Vietnamese government (GVN). It was hoped that this program would convince the peasants to become increasingly loyal to the South Vietnamese government, however, the Strategic Hamlet Program was a failure, it alienated many and after it was canceled, the Viet Cong's influence increased and rural peasants moved back to their old homes or they moved to larger cities.[265]
In the years which followed the North Vietnamese conquest of South Vietnam, up to 300,000 South Vietnamese were sent to re-education camps, where many of them were forced to perform hard labor, tortured, starved, and exposed to diseases.[266]
Yugoslavia
Nazi camps
During the
List of the camps:[267]
- Sajmište
- Sremska Mitrovica
- Đakovo
- Vinkovci
- Osijek
- Tenjski Antunovac
- Slavonska Požega
- Stara Gradiška
- Jablanac
- Mlaka
- Jasenovac
- Bodegraj
- Lađevac
- Rajići
- Paklenica
- Grabovac
- Garešnica
- Sisak
- Caprag (camp for children)
- Gospić
- Jadovo
- Slana (camp for women)
- Slana (camp for men)
- Ogulin
- Cerovljani
- Prijedor
- Kruščica[270]
- Zenica
- Sarajevo
- Vlasenica – Han Pijesak
- Podromanija – Kasarna
- Rogatica
- Višegrad
- Pale
- Modriča
- Doboj
- Maglaj
- Šekovići
- Jastrebarsko
- Gacko
- Belgrade – Banjica
- Niš – Crveni Krst
- Trepča
- Šabac
- Bor
- Petrovgrad(Zrenjanin)
- Skopje
- Bačka Palanka
- Sombor
- Bečej
- Novi Sad
- Bačka Topola
- Subotica
- Rab
- Molat
- Kraljevica
- Bakar
- Činglinj
- Bar
- Mamula
- Prevlaka
- Zabjelo
- Maribor
- Ljubljana
- Begunjski Dvor – Bled
- Celje
- Kruševac
- Smederevska Palanka
- Petrovac na Mlavi
- Žagubica
Communist camps
In 1931, 499,969 citizens of Yugoslavia listed their native language as German and they comprised 3.6% of population of the country.
These camps for the sick, the elderly, children, and those who were unable to work were:
In the Bačka:
- Bački Jarak with 7,000 deaths
- Gakovo with 8,500 deaths
- Kruševlje with 3,000 to 3,500 deaths
In the Banat:
- Molinwith 3,000 deaths
- Knićanin with 11,000 deaths
In Syrmia:
- "Svilara", silk factory in Sremska Mitrovica with 2,000 deaths
In Slavonia:
- Valpovo with 1,000 to 2,000 deaths
- Krndija with 500 to 1,500 deaths
Over a three-year period, 48,447 of the interned
The camps were disbanded in 1948 and the Yugoslav government recognized the citizenship of the remaining Danube Swabians.[277] In 1948, 57,180 Germans lived in Yugoslavia.[271] In the following decades, most of them emigrated to Germany.[278]
See also
References
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{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ISBN 978-1-55753-476-7.
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