List of conspiracy theories

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The Eye of Providence, or the all-seeing eye of God, seen here on the US$1 bill, has been taken by some to be evidence of a conspiracy involving the Founding Fathers of the United States and the Illuminati.[1]: 58 [2]: 47–49 
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This is a list of notable conspiracy theories. Many conspiracy theories relate to supposed clandestine government plans and elaborate murder plots.[3] They usually deny consensus opinion and cannot be proven using historical or scientific methods, and are not to be confused with research concerning verified conspiracies, such as Germany's pretense for invading Poland in World War II.

In principle, conspiracy theories might not always be false, and their validity depends on evidence as for any theory. However, they are often implausible prima facie due to their convoluted and all-encompassing nature.[3]

Psychologists sometimes attribute proclivities toward conspiracy theories to a number of psychopathological conditions such as

anxiety and agent detection.[4]

Aviation

Numerous conspiracy theories pertain to air travel and aircraft. Incidents such as the 1955 bombing of the

Mull of Kintyre helicopter crash as well as various aircraft technologies and alleged sightings, have all spawned theories of foul play which deviate from official verdicts.[7]

Black helicopters

Main article: Black helicopter

This conspiracy theory emerged in the US in the 1960s. The John Birch Society originally promoted[8] it, asserting that a United Nations force would soon arrive in black helicopters to bring the US under UN control. A similar theory concerning so-called "phantom helicopters" appeared in the UK in the 1970s.[9]

The theory re-emerged in the 1990s during the presidency of Bill Clinton, and was "energetically" promoted by writer Jim Keith in his book Black Helicopters Over America. By the 2000s, the term "black helicopters" became a shorthand for antigovernment conspiracy theories that "stretch the bounds of credulity",[10] such as those espoused by militia groups and a number of guests of talk show host Glenn Beck.[11][12]

Chemtrails

Main article: Chemtrail conspiracy theory
A high-flying jet's engines leaving a condensation trail (contrail)

Also known as SLAP (Secret Large-scale Atmospheric Program), this theory alleges that water condensation trails ("

aluminum, strontium and barium,[13] under secret government policies. An estimated 17% of people globally believe the theory to be true or partly true. In 2016, the Carnegie Institution for Science published the first-ever peer-reviewed study of the chemtrail theory; 76 out of 77 participating atmospheric chemists and geochemists stated that they had seen no evidence to support the chemtrail theory, or stated that chemtrail theorists rely on poor sampling.[14][15]

Korean Air Lines Flight 007

The destruction of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 by Soviet jets in 1983 has long drawn the interest of conspiracy theorists. The theories range from allegations of a planned espionage mission, to a US government cover-up, to the consumption of the passengers' remains by giant crabs.[16]

Malaysia Airlines Flight MH370

See also: Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 disappearance theories

The disappearance of

James H. Fetzer has placed responsibility for the disappearance with the then Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu.[17] Historian Norman Davies has promoted the conspiracy theory that hackers remotely took over a Boeing Honeywell Uninterruptible Autopilot, supposedly installed on board, remotely piloting the aircraft to Antarctica.[18][19]

Malaysia Airlines Flight MH17

Flight MH370, that the plane was actually shot down by the Ukrainian Air Force to frame Russia, that it was part of a conspiracy to conceal the "truth" about HIV (seven disease specialists were on board), or that the Illuminati or Israel was responsible.[17][20]

Business and industry

New Coke was manufactured between 1985 and 2002.

Deepwater Horizon

Multiple conspiracy theories pertain to a fatal oil-rig industrial accident in 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico, alleging sabotage by those seeking to promote environmentalism, or a strike by North Korean or Russian submarines. Elements of such theories had been suggested or promoted by US radio host Rush Limbaugh.[21][22]

New Coke

Main article: New Coke § Conspiracy theories

A theory claims that The Coca-Cola Company intentionally changed to an inferior formula with New Coke, with the intent either of driving up demand for the original product or permitting the reintroduction of the original with a new formula using cheaper ingredients.[23] Coca-Cola president Donald Keough rebutted this charge: "The truth is, we're not that dumb, and we're not that smart."[24]

Deaths and disappearances

Conspiracy theories frequently emerge following the deaths of prominent leaders and public figures.

Death of Nero

In ancient times, widespread conspiracy theories were circulated pertaining to the death of the Roman emperor Nero, who committed suicide in 68 AD.[25] Some of these theories claimed that Nero had actually faked his death and was secretly still alive, but in hiding, plotting to reestablish his reign.[25] In most of these stories, he was said to have fled to the East, where he was still influential.[25] Other theories held that Nero would return from the dead to retake his throne.[25] Many early Christians feared Nero's return to resume his vicious anti-Christian persecutions.[25] The Book of Revelation may allude to these conspiracy theories in its description of the slaughtered head returned to life.[25]

John F. Kennedy assassination

Main article: John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories
John F. Kennedy in the presidential limousine shortly before his assassination

In modern times, multiple

Mafia, sitting Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, Cuban Prime Minister Fidel Castro, the KGB, or even some combination thereof.[30][27] It is also frequently asserted that the United States federal government intentionally covered up crucial information in the aftermath of the assassination to prevent the conspiracy from being discovered.[30]

Disappearance of Harold Holt

Harold Holt in 1966.
Main article: Disappearance of Harold Holt

At approximately 12:20pm on 17 December 1967, then-Prime Minister of Australia Harold Holt, disappeared while swimming at Cheviot Beach, near the town of Portsea in Victoria. While it is presumed that Holt drowned, the topic is still described as one of the biggest unsolved mysteries in Australian history and has spawned many conspiracy theories.[31] The conspiracy theories have been widely criticised by the public and by members of Holt's own family.

In 2007, television presenter Ray Martin hosted the television special Who Killed Harold Holt?, which first aired on the Nine Network on 20 November 2007. While the special explored numerous theories about Holt's disappearance, it gave particular credence to the theory that he committed suicide.[32] In the lead-up to the airing of the program, Holt's biographer, Tom Frame, described the allegations made in the special as "unjustified and contrary to all the evidence" in an opinion piece published in The Australian newspaper, while Holt's son, Sam, said he was "amazed that people can still keep bringing up [these] fallacious theories".

Another conspiracy theory is that Holt was actually a spy for the

Chinese government (under both the Nationalist and Communist governments) ever since he began studying at the University of Melbourne in 1929 and that he "pretended to drown", instead theorising that once below the surface two Chinese frogmen transported him to China in a submarine. This theory also claims that the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO) covered up any evidence. This theory was first promoted in British writer Anthony Grey's 1983 novel The Prime Minister Was a Spy
, which attracted controversy in Australia.

Other conspiracy theories claim that Holt was assassinated. Targets of these claims include North Vietnam and the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).[33]

Death of other prominent figures

The deaths of prominent figures of all types attract conspiracy theorists, sometimes elaborating on historically verified conspiracies such as the assassination of U.S. President

Bollywood star Sushant Singh Rajput.[51]

There are also claims that deaths were covered up. Such theories include the "

Melania Trump replacement theory proposes the same of the former US First Lady.[57][58]

Inverted theories concerning deaths are also known, prominently claims that Elvis Presley's death was faked[59] and that Adolf Hitler survived the Second World War and fled to the Americas, to Antarctica, or to the Moon.[60] Theories that Hitler had survived are known to have been deliberately promoted by the government of the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin as part of a disinformation campaign.[61][62][63]

The disappearance, and often presumed death, of an individual may also become a cause for conspiracy theorists. Theories of a cover-up surrounding the 1974

Howletts Zoo.[64][65][66] Numerous conspiracy theories have also attended the 2007 disappearance of English girl Madeleine McCann.[67]

The murder of

Snopes.com,[72] and FactCheck.org stated that these theories were false and unfounded.[68] The New York Times,[73] Los Angeles Times,[74] and The Washington Post called the fabrications fake news and falsehoods.[75]

Economics and society

New World Order

Main article: New World Order (conspiracy theory)
Bavarian Illuminati

The New World Order theory states that a group of international elites control governments, industry, and media organizations, with the goal of establishing global hegemony. They are alleged to be implicated in most of the major wars of the last two centuries, to carry out secretly staged events, and to deliberately manipulate economies.

The New World Order has been connected to a wide range of actors including the Illuminati (see § Illuminati), Jews (§ Antisemitism), colluding world governments or corporations, NGOs such as the World Economic Forum (Great Reset § Conspiracy theories), and secretive organizations such as Bohemian Grove,[76] Le Cercle,[77] and Skull and Bones. Theorists believe that a wide range of musicians, including Beyoncé and Whitney Houston, have been associated with the "group."[78] Prominent theorists include Mark Dice and David Icke.[79]

Predictive programming

Not to be confused with Predicative programming.
See also: The Simpsons § Purported foreshadowing of actual events

Many theorists allege that the contents of fictional media, in a process called "predictive programming," are manipulated to reference planned false flags, technological innovations, social changes, and other future events.[80] These references are understood to be a conditioning and brainwashing tool, such that the public becomes more accepting of these events than they would be otherwise.[80][81]

Predictive programming has been used to explain events such as the September 11 attacks and COVID-19 pandemic, and has been connected with media such as Die Hard, The Simpsons, and Contagion.[80][82]

George Soros

Further information: False or misleading statements by Donald Trump and List of conspiracy theories promoted by Donald Trump

Hungarian-American investor

Viktor Orban, Donald Trump,[83] Rudy Giuliani,[84] Joseph diGenova,[85] Bill O'Reilly, Roy Moore, Alex Jones, Paul Gosar, and Ben Garrison. Soros conspiracy theories are sometimes linked to antisemitic conspiracy theories.[86]

Freemasonry

Conspiracy theories concerning the Freemasons have proliferated since the 18th century. Theorists have alleged that Freemasons control large parts of the economies or judiciaries of a number of countries, and have alleged Masonic involvement in the British enquiry regarding the sinking of the Titanic and in the crimes of Jack the Ripper.[87][88] Notable among theorists has been American inventor Samuel Morse, who in 1835 published a book of his own conspiracy theories.[89] Freemason conspiracy theories have also been linked to certain antisemitic conspiracy theories.

Üst akıl

Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), the libertarian socialist Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) and supporters of Fethullah Gülen—were attacking Turkey at the same time in a well-coordinated campaign.[93]

One instance of promoting the "mastermind" conspiracy theory occurred in February 2017, when then-Ankara Mayor Melih Gökçek claimed that earthquakes in the western province of Çanakkale could have been organized by dark external powers aiming to destroy Turkey's economy with an "artificial earthquake" near Istanbul.[94] In another example, in November 2017, the Islamist newspaper Yeni Akit claimed that the fashion trend of "ripped denim" jeans was in fact a means of communication, via specific forms of rips and holes, between agents of foreign states and their collaborators in Turkey.[95]

Espionage

Israel animal spying

There are conspiracy theories alleging that

satellite tracking device.[97]

Harold Wilson

Numerous persons, including former MI5 officer

Harold Wilson was secretly a KGB spy. Historian Christopher Andrew has lamented that a number of people have been "seduced by Golitsyn's fantasies".[98][99][100]

Malala Yousafzai

Conspiracy theories concerning

homeopath.[101][102][103][104]

Ethnicity, race and religion

Antisemitism

Main articles: Antisemitic trope and International Jewish conspiracy
First edition of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion

Since at least the

tyranny.[110]

Mahmoud Ahmedinejad,[113] the chemist with a conviction for inciting racial hatred Germar Rudolf[114] and the discredited author David Irving.[115]

Pleiadians.[119]

Anti-Armenianism

See also:
Denial of the Armenian Genocide

Conspiracy theories that allege that the Armenians wield secret political power are prevalent in Azerbaijan[120] and have been promoted by the government,[121] including President Ilham Aliyev.[122][123][124]

Turkish Foreign Minister

CIA to destroy the Soviet Union.[128]

Anti-Baháʼísm

Main article: Persecution of Baháʼís

Israeli governments.[129] An apocryphal and historically inaccurate book published in Iran, entitled The Memoirs of Count Dolgoruki, details a theory that the Bahá'ís intend to destroy Islam. Such anti-Baháʼí accusations have been dismissed as having no factual foundation.[130][131][132]

Anti-Catholicism

See also: Anti-Catholicism, Vatican conspiracy theories, Jesuit conspiracy theories, and Controversies about Opus Dei
Catholicism as an octopus, from H. E. Fowler and Jeremiah J. Crowley
's The Pope (1913)

Since the

Rebecca Reed, Avro Manhattan, Jack Chick and Alberto Rivera. Theorists often claim that the Pope is the Antichrist
, accuse Catholics of suppressing evidence incompatible with Church teachings, and describe Catholics as being involved with secret evil rituals, crimes, and other plots.

In 1853, the Scottish minister

The Covenant, The Sword, and the Arm of the Lord.[136]

Fears of a Catholic takeover of the US have been especially persistent,[137][138] prompted by large-scale Catholic immigration in the 19th century[139] and Ku Klux Klan propaganda.[140][141] Such fears have attached to Catholic political candidates such as Al Smith[142] and John F. Kennedy.[143][144][145]

Pope John Paul I died in September 1978, only a month after his election to the papacy. The timing of his death and the Vatican's alleged difficulties with ceremonial and legal death procedures has fostered several conspiracy theories.

The elderly Pope Benedict XVI's resignation in February 2013, officially due to "lack of strength of mind and body",[146] prompted theories in Italian publications such as La Repubblica and Panorama that he resigned to avoid the exposure of an underground gay Catholic network.[147][148]

Antichrist

Apocalyptic prophecies, particularly Christian claims about the

Napoleon Bonaparte, and German Führer Adolf Hitler.[149][150][151][152]

Bible and Jesus

Bible conspiracy theories posit that significant parts of the New Testament are false, or have been omitted. Various groups both real (such as the Vatican) and fake (such as the Priory of Sion) are said to suppress relevant information concerning, for example, the dating of the Shroud of Turin.[153]

Much of this line of conspiracy theory has been stimulated by a debunked book titled The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail (1982), which claimed that Jesus and Mary Magdalene were lovers and that their offspring and descendants were secretly hidden in Europe following the death of Jesus, from whom the then-living French draughtsman Pierre Plantard claimed descent. Interest in this hoax saw a resurgence following the publication of Dan Brown's 2003 novel The Da Vinci Code.[154]

The Gospel of Afranius, an atheistic Russian work published in 1995 with an English translation published in 2022, proposes politically motivated gaslighting as the origin of the foundational Christian belief in the resurrection of Jesus.[155]

Islamist

"

War against Islam" is a conspiracy theory in Islamist discourse which describes a plot to destroy Islamic society. The alleged plotters are non-Muslims and "false Muslims" in collusion with Western powers whose efforts are a continuation of the Medieval Crusades.[156]

Anti-Islamic

Since the

Islamize Europe and the West through mass immigration and high Moslem birth rates.[161] U.S. President Barack Obama was accused of being a secret Muslim
.

Paganism

See also: Witch-cult hypothesis

A theory holds that the witch trials of the Early Modern period were an effort to suppress pre-Christian, pagan religions which had endured the Christianization of Europe. A far-right pro-pagan conspiracy theory suggests that Christianity was created as a Jewish scheme to undermine the Aryan race.[119]

Paul the Apostle

Paul the Apostle makes an appearance in some variants of the medieval Jewish anti-Christian polemic, Toledot Yeshu, as a spy for the rabbis.[162]

Muslims have long believed that Paul purposefully corrupted the

the cross,[167] and the idea of original sin producing the need for redemption.[168]

The Baháʼí Faith also regards Paul as a false or misguided preacher who corrupted Jesus's original message. In this sense, he is seen as the real "Judas" who betrayed Jesus.[169]

Pre-Māori settlement of New Zealand

Main article: Pre-Māori settlement of New Zealand theories

Racism

White genocide conspiracy theory is a white nationalist notion that immigration, integration, low fertility rates and abortion are being promoted in predominantly white countries to dispossess or eliminate white people.[170][171][172][173][174][175] A 2017 study in France by IFOP, for example, found that 48% of participants believed that political and media elites are conspiring to replace white people with immigrants.[176]

The idea of

better source needed
]

"The Plan" is an alleged plot by white power brokers in Washington, D.C., to take control of the city's local government from African Americans, who were a majority of the city's population from the late 1950s to the early 2010s and remain its largest ethnic group.[179][180] Most city residents, regardless of race, do not believe in The Plan, but it may have widespread quiet credence among black residents and influence on local elections.[181]

Fandom, celebrity relationships, and shipping

Numerous conspiracy theories surround the desire by followers of a

sexual relationship, known as shipping.[182] Many real-person shipping conspiracy theories involve claims that the pregnancies and children of partnered or married celebrity couples are fake.[183] Proponents of celebrity shipping conspiracies that ship two celebrities of the same gender typically argue that they are being pro-LGBT by supporting two people who are forcibly closeted by a homophobic industry.[184]
Conspiracy communities about celebrity relationships tend to be created and dominated by women.[183]

Larries

Further information: Larries

Larries are a group of shipping conspiracy theorist fans, centered around the idea that two members of the boy band One Direction, Harry Styles and Louis Tomlinson, are secretly a couple.[185] These conspiracy theorists falsely claim that Styles and Tomlinson have been closeted by their management since the inception of the band, despite multiple claims otherwise by Styles, Tomlinson, their friends, and their family.[185]

Government, politics, and conflict

In the modern era, political conspiracy theories are often spread using

Shorenstein Center, found that "misinformation is currently predominantly a pathology of the right".[186]

Political conspiracy theories may take generalized and wide-ranging forms concerning wars and international bodies, but may also be seen at a localized level, such as the conspiracy theory pertaining to the 118th Battalion, a British regiment stationed in Kitchener, Ontario, during World War I, which was believed by some in Kitchener to still be present years after the war ended and to be controlling local politics.[187]

Crisis actors

Further information: "Crisis actor" as a conspiracy theory motif

mass shooting
and similar traumatic events are actually staged, with victims and their families being portrayed by covert crisis actors.

Illuminati in Europe

Conspiracy theories concerning the Illuminati, a short-lived 18th-century Enlightenment-era secret society, appear to have originated in the late 19th century, when some Catholic conservatives in Europe came to believe that the group had been responsible for the French Revolution of 1789–1799.[188] Hoaxes about the Illuminati were later spread in the 1960s by a group of American practical jokers known as the Discordians who wrote a series of fake letters about the Illuminati to Playboy.[189]

False flag operations

9/11

False flag operations are covert operations designed to appear as if they are being carried out by other entities. Some allegations of false flag operations have been verified or are subjects of legitimate historical dispute (such as the 1933 Reichstag arson attack).[190] Unsubstantiated allegations of such operations feature strongly in conspiracy theories.

Such allegations have attached to

the 2004 Madrid train bombings,[191] the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident,[192] and the Euromaidan massacre.[193]

The rise of

ISIS gave rise to conspiracy theories that it had been created by the US, CIA, Mossad, or Hillary Clinton.[194][195] The same happened after the rise of Boko Haram.[196][197]

9/11 2001 attack on United States

Main article: 9/11 conspiracy theories
See also:
9/11 Truth movement and 9/11 Commission

The

Twin Towers collapsed in controlled demolitions,[198][199] a theory rejected by the engineering profession[200] and the 9/11 Commission
.

Sandy Hook school shooting in U.S. 2012

Main article: Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting conspiracy theories

A

Adam Lanza.[204]

Clintons

Bill and Hillary Clinton, main people supposedly involved in this conspiracy

The Clinton body count conspiracy theory, notably advanced by Newsmax publisher Christopher Ruddy, asserts that US President Bill Clinton and his wife Hillary Clinton have assassinated fifty or more of their associates and enemies.[205][206] Such accusations have been around at least since the 1990s, when a pseudo-documentary film called The Clinton Chronicles, produced by Larry Nichols and promoted by Rev. Jerry Falwell, accused Bill Clinton of multiple crimes including murder.[207][208]

Jeffrey Epstein death conspiracy theories

See also:
Jeffrey Epstein death conspiracy theories

The 2019 death of Jeffrey Epstein, an American financier billionaire and convicted sex offender with ties to Bill Clinton, Donald Trump, and other members of the elite, has become the subject of conspiracy theories.[209][210]

FEMA

Further information: FEMA camps conspiracy theory

The United States' Federal Emergency Management Agency is the subject of many theories, including that the organization has been building concentration camps in the US to prepare for imposing martial law and genocide.[211]

African National Congress

Members of South Africa's African National Congress party have long propagated conspiracy theories, frequently concerning the CIA and alleged white supremacists. In 2014, Deputy Minister of Defence Kebby Maphatsoe joined others in accusing without evidence Public Protector Thuli Madonsela of being a US agent working to create a puppet government in South Africa.[212][213][214]

Barack Obama

See also: Spygate (conspiracy theory), False or misleading statements by Donald Trump, List of conspiracy theories promoted by Donald Trump, and Barack Obama citizenship conspiracy theories
Donald Trump has been a proponent of the conspiracy theory that Barack Obama was not born in the United States.

puppet government for a wealthy elite. The "birther" theory, which came to prominence in 2009, denies the legitimacy of Obama's presidency by claiming that he was not born in the US.[215] This theory has persisted despite his Hawaiian birth certificate and birth announcements in two Hawaiian newspapers in 1961.[216] Notable promoters of the theory are dentist-lawyer Orly Taitz[8] and former President Donald Trump, who has since publicly acknowledged its falsity but is said to continue to advocate for it privately.[217][218][219] Other theories claim that Obama, a Protestant Christian, is secretly a Muslim
.

A pair of fatal attacks on US government facilities in Benghazi, Libya, by Islamist terrorists in 2012 has spawned numerous conspiracy theories, including allegations that Obama's administration arranged the attack for political reasons, and Senator Rand Paul's claimed that the government's response to the incident was designed to distract from a secret CIA operation.[220][221][222]

Cultural Marxism

Further information: Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory

The intellectual group known as the Frankfurt School which emerged in the 1930s has increasingly been accused of promoting communism in capitalist societies. The term "Cultural Marxism" has been notably employed by conservative American movements such as the Tea Party,[223][224] and by Norwegian mass murderer Anders Behring Breivik.[225]

Deep state

Further information: Deep state in the United States, List of conspiracy theories promoted by Donald Trump, and QAnon

While the term is occasionally used as a neutral term to denote a nation's bureaucracy,

Infowars and Donald Trump.[229] A 2017 poll by ABC News and The Washington Post indicated that 48% of Americans believe in the existence of a conspiratorial "deep state" in the US.[230][231]

Sutherland Springs

See also: Sutherland Springs church shooting § Hoaxes and conspiracy theories

The 2017

alt-left" supporter, antifa member, or radical Muslim;[232][233] or claiming that he carried an antifa flag and told churchgoers: "This is a communist revolution".[234] Some reports also falsely claimed that he targeted the church because they were white conservatives.[235]

Trump, Biden, and Ukraine

Main article: Conspiracy theories related to the Trump–Ukraine scandal

Beginning in 2017, a sprawling conspiracy theory emerged from 4chan and was spread via right-wing message boards and websites, then via Breitbart and Fox News to then-President Donald Trump and his allies. The conspiracy theory holds both that Ukraine (rather than Russia) had interfered in the 2016 United States elections, and that then-Vice President Joe Biden had intervened to protect a company in which his son Hunter was involved. The New Yorker found that reporting of the conspiracy in the right wing media was initiated by Peter Schweizer, a former Breitbart News contributor and president of The Government Accountability Institute, "a self-styled corruption watchdog group chaired and funded by conservative mega-donor Rebekah Mercer"[236] and founded by Steve Bannon.[237]

Biden-Ukraine conspiracy theory

Main article: Biden–Ukraine conspiracy theory

Refers to a series of allegations that Joe Biden and his son Hunter Biden coordinated efforts against anti-corruption investigations in Ukraine into the Ukrainian gas company Burisma, on whose Board Hunter Biden sat.[238] Investigations are currently ongoing.

Michelle Obama

Some conservatives have supported a conspiracy theory falsely claiming that former FLOTUS, Michelle Obama, is secretly transgender, and that her name was originally "Michael".[239][240][241] Alex Jones has been a vocal supporter of the theory,[242][243] initially promoting it in 2014 after Joan Rivers made a joke referring to Obama as transgender.[244][245]

Golden billion threatens Russia

The golden billion is an idea there is an anti-Russian Western population of approximately one billion seeking to appropriate Russia's natural resources. It is a justification for Russian leader Vladimir Putin's imperial aggression, claiming to be a defense against a far-reaching covert attack.[246] The theory was first advanced under the name A. Kuzmich.[247]

Voting pencils

Main article: Voting pencil conspiracy theory

The

polling places enabling electoral fraud through erasing legitimate votes. It has been nicknamed "Pencilgate" and promoted on Twitter
as "#Pencilgate" and "#UsePens".

The conspiracy theory originated in the

Senator who is the founder and leader of the One Nation party, promoted the conspiracy theory in the lead-up to the 2022 Australian federal election.[249]

While pencils are provided at polling places in the United Kingdom and Australia, in neither country is it required that they be used.[250] On their website, the Australian Electoral Commission states:

"While the provision of pencils used to be a legal requirement, since 2020 under Section 206 of the Commonwealth Electoral Act 1918, the AEC is required to provide an "implement or method for voters to mark their ballot papers".

The AEC has found from experience that pencils are the most reliable implements for marking ballot papers. Pencils are practical because they don't run out and the polling staff check and sharpen pencils as necessary throughout election day. Pencils can be stored between elections and they work better in tropical areas.

There is, however, nothing to prevent an elector from marking their ballot paper with a pen if they so wish."[251]

While the AEC only conducts federal elections, voters can use either pencil or pen in state, territory and local elections. Pencils are supplied at polling places for federal elections and for state elections in

Western Australian Electoral Commission has provided pens instead of pencils at polling places since the 2017.[256]

QAnon

Main article: QAnon

QAnon is a

child molesters are operating a global child sex trafficking ring which conspired against Donald Trump.[263] QAnon has direct roots in Pizzagate, an Internet conspiracy theory that appeared one year earlier, but also incorporates elements of many other theories.[264] QAnon has been described as a cult.[264][265]

State-sponsored kidnappings of Muslims in Sweden

Main article: Alleged state-sponsored kidnappings of Muslims in Sweden

Since December 2021, disinformation has been spread concerning Swedish social services taking Muslim children into care without a legal basis.[266] As a result of the conspiracy theory, two Swedish people were killed in Brussels in 2023.[267][268]

15-minute cities

Various unfounded theories have emerged that the

anti-vaccine misinformation, and fears of a world government.[269]

Medicine

See also: Alternative medicine
This article is part of a series on
Alternative medicine
General information
Fringe medicine and science
Conspiracy theories
Classifications
Traditional medicine
Diagnoses

Alternative therapy suppression

A 2013 study approved by the University of Chicago suggested that almost half of Americans believe at least one medical conspiracy theory, with 37% believing that the Food and Drug Administration deliberately suppresses 'natural' cures due to influence from the pharmaceutical industry.[270] A prominent proponent of comparable conspiracy theories has been convicted fraudster Kevin Trudeau.[271]

Artificial diseases

See also:
Misinformation related to the COVID-19 pandemic

Scientists have found evidence that

it was invented by the CIA.[272] This idea, and similar ideas concerning Ebola, have since been promoted by persons such as actor Steven Seagal,[273][274][275] Nation of Islam leader Louis Farrakhan and former South Africa President Thabo Mbeki.[272][276][277]

Similar conspiracy theories allege that pharmaceutical companies assist in the creation of conditions and diseases including

HPV
.

COVID-19 pandemic

Main article:
Misinformation related to the COVID-19 pandemic

A number of conspiracy theories have been promoted about the origin and purported motive behind the SARS-CoV-2 virus and its spread.[4] Some claimed that the virus was engineered,[278] that it may have been a Chinese or United States bioweapon,[4][279][280][281] a Jewish plot, part of which is to force mass vaccinations or sterilizations,[282][283][284] spread as part of a Muslim conspiracy,[285][286] a population control scheme,[287][288] or related to 5G mobile phone networks.[289][290]

Fluoridation

Ripper explains to Mandrake that he discovered the Communist plot to pollute Americans' "precious bodily fluids", a reference to the John Birch Society's anti-fluoridation conspiracy theories (Dr. Strangelove, 1964).

communist plot to weaken the American population.[295]

Vaccination

Further information: False or misleading statements by Donald Trump and List of conspiracy theories promoted by Donald Trump

It is claimed that the pharmaceutical industry has mounted a cover-up of

US President Donald Trump,[299][300] and has led to increased rates of infection and death from diseases such as measles and COVID-19[301] in many countries, including the US, Italy, Germany, Romania and the UK.[302][303][304][305]

Vaccine conspiracy theories have been widespread in Nigeria since at least 2003, as well as in Pakistan. Such theories may feature claims that vaccines are part of a secret anti-Islam plot, and have been linked to fatal mass shootings and bombings at vaccine clinics in both countries.[306][307][308]

Outer space

Scientific space programs are of particular interest to conspiracy theorists. The most prolific theories allege that

hacker Gary McKinnon,[310] suggests that a secret program of crewed space fleets exists, supposedly acting under the United Nations.[311]

Conspiracy theorists have long posited a plot by organizations such as NASA to conceal the existence of a large planet in the

solar eclipse of 21 August 2017.[313][314] Other conspiracy theorists in 2017 also predicted Nibiru would appear, including Terral Croft and YouTube pastor Paul Begley.[315][316]

Extraterrestrials and UFOs

See also:
UFO conspiracy theory

Among the foremost concerns of conspiracy theorists are questions of alien life; for example, allegations of government cover-ups of the supposed

Roswell UFO incident or activity at Area 51.[317] Also disseminated are theories concerning so-called 'men in black', who allegedly silence witnesses.[citation needed
]

English conspiracy theorist David Icke

Multiple reports of dead cattle found with absent body parts and seemingly drained of blood have emerged worldwide since at least the 1960s. This phenomenon has spawned theories variously concerning aliens and secret government or military experiments.[318] Prominent among such theorists is Linda Moulton Howe, author of Alien Harvest (1989).[319][320]

Many conspiracy theories have drawn inspiration from the writings of

British Royal Family, among others, are or were such creatures, or have been under their control.[324] Icke's critics have suggested that 'reptilians' may be seen as an antisemitic code word, a charge he has denied.[59]

Science and technology

Climate change

Further information:
Climate change conspiracy theory
Aerial view of the HAARP site, Alaska

A

Christopher Monckton[328] have promoted such theories. Popular author Michael Crichton wrote a novel
based on this premise.

Weather and earthquake control projects

Numerous theories pertain to real or alleged weather-controlling projects. Theories include the debunked assertion that

HAARP, a radio-technology research program funded by the US government, is a secret weather-controlling system. Some theorists have blamed 2005's Hurricane Katrina on HAARP.[329] HAARP has also been suggested to have somehow caused earthquakes, such as the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami or the 2013 Saravan earthquake.[330] Some HAARP-related claims refer to mind-control technology.[331]

Also of interest to conspiracy theorists are cloud-seeding technologies. These include a debunked allegation[332] that the British military's Project Cumulus caused the fatal 1952 Lynmouth Flood in Devon, England,[333] and claims concerning a secret project said to have caused the 2010 Pakistan floods.[334]

MKUltra

Project Monarch), especially following CIA Director Richard Helm's 1973 order to destroy all files related to the project. These theories include the allegation that the mass fatality at Jonestown in 1978 was connected to an MKUltra experiment.[335]

Flat Earth

Logo of the Flat Earth Society, 2013

GPS devices are rigged to make aircraft pilots wrongly believe they are flying around a globe.[337][338]

RFID chips

An RFID tag, exposed by the damage to this Oyster card

Radio frequency identification chips (RFID), such as those implanted into pets as a means of tracking, have drawn the interest of conspiracy theorists who posit that this technology is secretly widely implanted in humans. Former Whitby, England town councilor Simon Parkes has promoted this theory, which may be related to conspiracy theories concerning vaccination, electronic banking and the Antichrist.[339][340]

Technology suppression

Numerous theories pertain to the alleged suppression of certain technologies and energies. Such theories may focus on the Vril Society Conspiracy, allegations of the suppression of the electric car by fossil-fuel companies (as detailed in the 2006 documentary Who Killed the Electric Car?), and the Phoebus cartel, set up in 1924, which has been accused of suppressing longer-lasting light bulbs.[341] Other long-standing allegations include the suppression of perpetual motion and cold fusion technology by government agencies, special interest groups, or fraudulent inventors.[342]

Promoters of alternative energy theories have included Thomas Henry Moray,

Stanley Meyer.[344]

Weaponry

Conspiracy theorists often attend to new military technologies, both real and imagined. Subjects of theories include: the alleged Philadelphia Experiment, a supposed attempt to turn a US Navy warship invisible;[345][unreliable source?] the alleged Montauk Project, a supposed government program to learn about mind control and time travel; and the so-called "tsunami bomb", which is alleged to have caused the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.[346]

Other theories include Peter Vogel's debunked claim that an accidental explosion of conventional munitions at Port Chicago was in fact a nuclear detonation,[347] and a theory promoted by the Venezuelan state-run TV station ViVe that the 2010 Haiti earthquake was caused by a secret US "earthquake weapon".[348]

Targeted Individuals

Further information: Gang stalking and Electronic harassment

Conspiracy theorists claim that government agents are utilizing directed energy weapons and electronic surveillance to harass members of the population. Theorists often cite research into psychotronic weapons, the Cuban Health Attacks, and the Microwave Auditory Effect as proof of their theory. There are over 10,000 people who identify as Targeted Individuals.[349]

The "Targeted Individual" phenomenon has been featured on episodes of

History Channel's In Search Of....[351]

False history

Pope Sylvester II (from 999 to 1003)

Some theories claim that the dates of historical events have been deliberately distorted. These include the

phantom time hypothesis of German conspiracy theorist[352] Heribert Illig, who in 1991 published an allegation that 297 years had been added to the calendar by establishment figures such as Pope Sylvester II in order to position themselves at the millennium.[353]

A comparable theory,

New Chronology, is associated with Russian theorist Anatoly Fomenko, who holds that history is many centuries shorter than widely believed, numerous historical documents have been fabricated, and legitimate documents destroyed, all for political ends. Adherents of have included chess grandmaster Garry Kasparov.[354]

Another claim is that world governments have hidden evidence for an advanced worldwide civilization with access to free energy and partially populated by giants called Tartaria, which was destroyed in the 1800s by a great "mud flood" cataclysm, causing its remains to be buried.[355]

Dead Internet theory

Main article: Dead Internet theory

The Dead Internet theory is the belief that the modern

procedurally generated content.[356]

Sports

Boxing

Boxing has featured in conspiracy theories, such as the claims that the second Ali-Liston fight[357] and the first Bradley-Pacquiao fight were fixed.[358]

Shergar

The theft and disappearance of the Irish-bred racehorse Shergar in 1983 has prompted many conspiracy theorists to speculate about involvement by the Mafia, the IRA and Colonel Gaddafi.[359]

Rigged selection processes

The "frozen envelope theory" suggests that the National Basketball Association rigged its 1985 draft lottery so that Patrick Ewing would join the New York Knicks. Theorists claim that a lottery envelope was chilled so that it could be identified by touch.[360] A similar "hot balls theory", promoted by Scottish football manager David Moyes, suggests that certain balls used in draws for UEFA competitions have been warmed to achieve specific outcomes.[361]

1984 Firecracker 400

The 1984 Firecracker 400 at Daytona International Speedway in Daytona, Florida, was the first NASCAR race to be attended by a sitting US president, Ronald Reagan, and was driver Richard Petty's 200th and final career victory. Rival driver Cale Yarborough's premature retirement to the pit road has prompted conspiracy theorists to allege that organizers fixed the race in order to receive good publicity for the event.[362]

Ronaldo and the 1998 World Cup Final

On the day of the

convulsive fit.[363] Ronaldo was initially removed from the starting lineup 72 minutes before the match, with the teamsheet released to a stunned world media, before he was reinstated by the Brazil coach shortly before kick off.[364][365] Ronaldo "sleepwalked" through the final, with France winning the game.[365] The nature of the incident set off a trail of questions and allegations which persisted for years, with Alex Bellos writing in The Guardian, "When Ronaldo's health scare was revealed after the match, the situation's unique circumstances lent itself to fabulous conspiracy theories. Here was the world's most famous sportsman, about to take part in the most important match of his career, when he suddenly, inexplicably, fell ill. Was it stress, epilepsy, or had he been drugged?"[366] Questions also circulated into who made Ronaldo play the game. The Brazil coach insisted he had the final say, but much speculation focused on sportswear company Nike, Brazil's multimillion-dollar sponsor—whom many Brazilians thought had too much control—putting pressure on the striker to play against medical advice.[366]

New England Patriots

See also: New England Patriots § Controversies
NRG Stadium before Super Bowl LI

The New England Patriots have also been involved in numerous conspiracy theories.[367] During their AFC Championship 24–20 victory over the Jacksonville Jaguars, several conspiracy theories spread stating that the referees helped the Patriots advance to Super Bowl LII.[368] However, sports analyst Stephen A. Smith stated the Jaguars were not robbed, but that they had no one to blame but themselves for the loss.[369] There were also conspiracy theories regarding the Super Bowl LI matchup between the Patriots and the Atlanta Falcons stating that the game was rigged[370] while others said the Falcons made questionable play-calls at the end of the game that resulted in them blowing a 28–3 lead.[371]

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Bibliography

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