List of ironclad warships of Austria-Hungary

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

refer to caption
An 1890 painting of an Austro-Hungarian squadron in Kiel, Germany, led by Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf

Between the 1860s and the 1880s, the

broadside ironclads, central battery ships and barbette ships. The first generation of ships, the seven broadside ironclads of the Drache, Kaiser Max and Erzherzog Ferdinand Max classes, formed the core of the Austrian fleet that was involved in an ironclad arms race with Italy in the 1860s and defeated the Italian Regia Marina (Royal Navy) at the Battle of Lissa in July 1866. The Austrian commander, Wilhelm von Tegetthoff, used ramming tactics to win the battle, which influenced the second generation of ironclads that he ordered in the late 1860s and early 1870s. These ships—Lissa, Custoza, Erzherzog Albrecht and the rebuilt ship of the line Kaiser—were central battery ships; this placed an emphasis on end-on fire capabilities, a necessity for ramming attacks since broadside guns could not be brought to bear
when ramming.

Following Tegetthoff's death in 1871, Friedrich von Pöck succeeded him as the head of the Austro-Hungarian Navy; Pöck lacked Tegetthoff's prestige and had great difficulty in securing funds from the Austro-Hungarian parliament for new ironclads. Pöck resorted to subterfuge to build the three Kaiser Max-class ironclads in the mid-1870s, ostensibly as simple reconstructions of the earlier vessels of the same names but little material was reused in the new ships. Pöck gained parliamentary approval for two new vessels, the center battery ship Tegetthoff in 1876 and the barbette ship Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf in 1881. Pöck's successor, Maximilian Daublebsky von Sterneck, used the same ruse to acquire funding for the barbette ship Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie, using funds supposedly devoted to rebuilding Erzherzog Ferdinand Max to build the new ship.

None of the second generation of Austro-Hungarian ironclads saw significant activity, owing to meager naval budgets, which precluded much active use throughout the late 19th century. By the early 1900s, the ships still in the navy's inventory had been reduced to secondary duties such as harbor defense or training exercises, with just Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf operational, serving as a

war prizes, though Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf and Kaiser Max were awarded to the Royal Yugoslav Navy. Most of the surrendered vessels were broken up in the 1920s, though Erzherzog Albrecht, having been converted into a barracks ship
, remained in the Italian Navy inventory until 1950.

Key
Armament The number and type of the primary armament
Armor The maximum thickness of the belt armor
Displacement Ship displacement at full combat load
Propulsion Number of shafts, type of propulsion system, and top speed generated
Service The dates work began and finished on the ship and its ultimate fate
Laid down The date the keel assembly commenced
Commissioned The date the ship was commissioned into the Navy

Drache class

refer to caption
Drache at anchor after her 1867 refit

Beginning with the launch of the French

broadside ironclads, armed with a battery of twenty-eight guns.[2][3][4] They provided the basis of the subsequent Kaiser Max and Erzherzog Ferdinand Max classes, which formed the core of the Austrian fleet at the Battle of Lissa.[5][6]

The two ships were kept in Austrian waters to protect against a possible Danish attack during the

hulked; she was dismantled in 1896.[1][9]

Ship Armament[1] Armor[1] Displacement[1] Propulsion[1] Service
Laid down[10] Commissioned[10] Fate[1]
Drache 10 × 48-pounder smoothbore guns
18 × 24-pounder rifled, muzzle-loading guns
4.5 in (115 mm) 3,110 long tons (3,160 t) 1 shaft, 1 steam engine, 10.5 knots (19.4 km/h; 12.1 mph) 18 February 1861 November 1862 Broken up, 1883
Salamander February 1861 May 1862 Broken up, 1896

Kaiser Max class (1862)

refer to caption
Illustration of Kaiser Max, c. 1866

Austria's main naval rival, the

recently united Kingdom of Italy, had also embarked on an ironclad building program in the early 1860s. Italy claimed significant areas of the Austrian Empire as historically Italian, so its naval expansionism posed a direct threat to Austria.[11] To match Italian acquisitions, Archduke Ferdinand Max ordered three more ironclads in 1861; Romako also prepared the design for these ships, which were based on the Draches. The new ships adopted incremental improvements over their predecessors, with more powerful engines (and thus a higher top speed) and more guns. The contracts for the ships were awarded to Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino, which had also built the Drache-class ironclads.[2][3][5] They proved to be a flawed design which was very unstable, a deficiency that could not be corrected in a refit conducted in 1867.[12]

Don Juan d'Austria was deployed to the North Sea during the Second Schleswig War, but she arrived too late to take part in any battles with Danish forces.[13] All three ships took part in the Seven Weeks' War and saw action at the Battle of Lissa, with Kaiser Max being among the first ships in Tegetthoff's fleet to spot the Italian Navy.[14] There, they were all heavily engaged in a melee with the Italians, but none were seriously damaged since their armor plating was strong enough to withstand the Italian gunfire.[15] The ships saw little activity after the war, owing in large part to disinterest in naval matters from parliament, which led to cripplingly low budgets for the navy; this prevented the fleet from being used in an active way. As the ships were in unusable condition due to neglect by the early 1870s, Marinekommandant Friedrich von Pöck secured funding to rebuild the vessels, though this was merely a ruse by Pöck to use the funds appropriated for the project to simply build three new vessels with the same names in their place. The original ships were in fact dismantled in 1873, with only the engines, armor plate, and other miscellaneous parts being reused in the new ships.[16][17]

Ship Armament[12] Armor[12] Displacement[12] Propulsion[12] Service[12]
Laid down Commissioned Fate
Kaiser Max 16 × 48-pounder guns
15 × 24-pounder guns
4.3 in (110 mm) 3,588 long tons (3,646 t) 1 shaft, 1 steam engine, 11.4 knots (21.1 km/h; 13.1 mph) Oct 1861 1863 Broken up, 1873
Prinz Eugen
Don Juan d'Austria March 1863

Erzherzog Ferdinand Max class

refer to caption
Erzherzog Ferdinand Max sometime after 1880

The last group of the first generation of Austrian ironclads, the Erzherzog Ferdinand Max class, were a significant improvement over the earlier five vessels, being much larger. Their increased size would have allowed them to carry thirty-two 48-pounder guns, a significant increase in fire power over the Kaiser Max class, but the need to complete the ships quickly as tensions with Italy reached a crisis point in June 1866 forced the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyards in Trieste to complete them with only half that number of guns.

Armstrong Guns.[12]

Both ships saw action at the Battle of Lissa, with Erzherzog Ferdinand Max serving as Tegetthoff's flagship.[20] He used the ship to ram and sink the Italian ironclad Re d'Italia. Habsburg was less heavily engaged in the battle, though neither ship received significant damage.[21] They spent the rest of the war patrolling the Adriatic Sea, but the Italian fleet remained in port.[22] Tight naval budgets in the two decades after the war precluded much active use. In the mid-1880s, both ships were reduced to secondary duties, with Erzherzog Ferdinand Max becoming a tender to the gunnery training school and Habsburg becoming a guard ship and a barracks ship in Pola, the main Austro-Hungarian naval base. Habsburg was sold for scrap in 1898, but Erzherzog Ferdinand Max remained in the navy's inventory until 1916, when she too was broken up.[18]

Ship Armament[12] Armor[12] Displacement[12] Propulsion[12] Service[12]
Laid down Commissioned Fate
Erzherzog Ferdinand Max 16 × 48-pounder guns 4.8 in (123 mm) 5,130 long tons (5,210 t) 1 shaft, 1 steam engine, 12.54 knots (23.22 km/h; 14.43 mph) 6 May 1863 July 1866 Broken up, 1916
Habsburg June 1863 Broken up, 1898

Lissa

refer to caption
Lissa before 1875

Lissa was the first of the second generation of Austro-Hungarian ironclads; these ships were built after the experience at the Battle of Lissa. At the battle, Tegetthoff had emphasized aggressive ramming tactics to make up for the numerical inferiority of his armored squadron compared to the Italian fleet. These tactics made the traditional broadside arrangement difficult to use, since they could not easily be brought to bear. The recently developed

breech-loading guns from the Prussian Krupp firm.[23][24]

Budgetary shortfalls delayed completion of the ship, which was constructed by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino,[25] thus limiting her career once she entered service. She was laid up in reserve throughout the 1870s, though she was nominally assigned to the ironclad squadron. During this period, the only event of note was a major fire aboard the ship in 1872.[26][27] In 1880, her hull was found to have rotted badly, so she was drydocked, stripped of most of her armor plate and re-timbered.[28] After completing the reconstruction, she returned to the ironclad squadron, where she served until 1888.[29] Lissa was finally stricken from the register in 1892 and broken up for scrap between 1893 and 1895.[25]

Ship Armament[25] Armor[25] Displacement[25] Propulsion[25] Service[25]
Laid down Commissioned Fate
Lissa 12 × 9-inch (229 mm) guns 6 in (152 mm) 7,086 long tons (7,200 t) 1 shaft, 1 steam engine, 12.83 knots (23.76 km/h; 14.76 mph) 27 June 1867 May 1871 Broken up, 1893

Custoza

refer to caption
Custoza in port

Custoza was the second ship of Tegetthoff's building program, also designed by Romako and constructed by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino.[25] He adopted the same basic design as he had used for Lissa, though he incorporated several improvements over the earlier vessel. Custoza carried a heavier battery of eight 10-inch (250 mm) guns, compared to the twelve 9-inch (230 mm) aboard Lissa, and they were placed in a two-story battery with four guns per level; this allowed four guns to fire ahead instead of just two for Lissa. She had an iron hull, the first time the Austro-Hungarian Navy built a major warship of that type.[25][30] She proved to be fast and maneuverable in service, but was built to an obsolescent design; this was less a fault of Romako's than a simple result of the rapid pace of development of naval technology in the period.[31] By the time Custoza entered service in 1875, Italy had already laid down the two very large and powerful Duilio-class turret ships, which were armed with four 17.7-inch (450 mm) guns.[32] Nevertheless, Custoza, along with the similar and contemporaneously built Erzherzog Albrecht, was the basis for the ironclad Tegetthoff, laid down in 1876.[33]

Like the rest of the Austro-Hungarian ironclad squadron, Custoza spent the 1870s laid up. In 1880, Custoza took part in an international naval demonstration against the

war prize and immediately broken up.[25][37]

Ship Armament[25] Armor[25] Displacement[25] Propulsion[25] Service[37]
Laid down Commissioned Fate
Custoza 8 × 10-inch (26 cm) guns 9 in (229 mm) 7,730.99 long tons (7,855.05 t) 1 shaft, 1 steam engine, 13.75 knots (25.47 km/h; 15.82 mph) 17 November 1869 February 1875 Broken up, 1920

Erzherzog Albrecht

refer to caption
Illustration of Erzherzog Albrecht with sails

Erzherzog Albrecht was ordered at the same time as Custoza in 1869. Budgetary limitations had however forced Romako to produce a slightly smaller, and thus cheaper, design for the second vessel. Constructed by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino, Erzherzog Albrecht mounted slightly smaller 9.4-inch (24 cm) Krupp guns in the same arrangement as aboard Custoza; also like Custoza, she had an iron hull, though she had thinner side armor. And as with Custoza, Erzherzog Albrecht was an obsolescent design when she was built.[25] As a result of its chronically low budgets, the navy had trouble paying the British manufacturers of her armor plate on schedule, which delayed her completion.[38]

As with the rest of the Austro-Hungarian fleet, Erzherzog Albrecht spent the 1870s out of service, being activated only in 1881 to assist in the suppression of a rebellion near

Cattaro Bay. During the operations, which concluded in March 1882, she and several other ships bombarded rebel positions in the area.[39] She participated in fleet training exercises in 1887 and 1889, but otherwise saw little activity through the 1880s.[40][41] Erzherzog Albrecht was renamed Feuerspeier and was converted into a tender for the gunnery school in 1908. In 1915, she became a barracks ship for U-boat crews, and after World War I was ceded to Italy as a prize. She was renamed Buttafuoco and used as a storage hulk until 1950, when she was finally scrapped, likely the last extant ironclad of the Austro-Hungarian Navy.[42]

Ship[25] Armament[25] Armor[25] Displacement[25] Propulsion[25] Service
Laid down[25] Commissioned[25] Fate[43]
Erzherzog Albrecht 8 × 9.4-inch (24 cm) guns 8 in (203 mm) 5,980 long tons (6,080 t) 1 shaft, 1 steam engine, 12.84 knots (23.78 km/h; 14.78 mph) 1 June 1870 June 1874 Ceded to Italy, broken up in 1950

Kaiser

refer to caption
Kaiser after her reconstruction into a casemate ship

Kaiser was originally built as a 100-gun

muzzle-loading guns manufactured by Armstrong in a central, two-story casemate. These were supported by a secondary battery of six 8-pounder rifled muzzle loaders.[45]

She spent the 1870s out of service, the result of a combination of the chronically low naval budgets and engineers' attempts to improve her very low speed. She received a new propeller in 1876, which increased her speed by more than a knot, and new boilers in 1880; she otherwise remained laid up. The navy determined that the ship was not worth retaining in 1893, and two years later began negotiations to sell her to Venezuela, but the discussions ultimately came to nothing. Instead, she was converted into a barracks ship in 1901–1902 and served in that capacity through World War I under the name Bellona.[50][51] Italy seized the ship after the war, though her ultimate fate is unknown.[45][52][53]

Ship Armament[45] Armor[45] Displacement[45] Propulsion[45] Service
Laid down[45] Commissioned[45] Fate[52][53]
Kaiser 10 × 9-inch guns 6 in 5,720 long tons (5,810 t) 1 shaft, 1 steam engine, 11.55 kn (21.39 km/h; 13.29 mph) 2 February 1869 (drydocked for reconstruction) December 1873 (reconstruction completed) Ceded to Italy, fate unknown

Kaiser Max class (1875)

refer to caption
Kaiser Max early in her career

Tegetthoff died in 1871, having been unable to secure the funding for a long-term naval construction program in line with his strategic thinking; his successor, Friedrich von Pöck, proved to be even less successful in terms of convincing parliament to support his priorities. Nevertheless, he was able to strengthen and modernize the Austro-Hungarian fleet during his tenure as Marinekommandant. His first success came in 1873, when he convinced parliament to authorize the reconstruction of the three old and badly rotted Kaiser Max-class ironclads, though he in fact only reused some components from the ships—their engines (though not their boilers), parts of the armor plate, and various fittings to save money.[45][54] The three ships proved to be an economical investment, costing a similar amount as Erzherzog Albrecht.[55] Romako also prepared the design for these ships; they were small casemate ships, armed with a battery of eight 8.3-inch (21 cm) guns, though unlike earlier casemate ships, the guns could only fire forward, not astern.[45] Also unlike earlier ironclads, which used wrought iron, the new Kaiser Maxes used Bessemer steel in the belt.[56]

Kaiser Max and Don Juan d'Austria were constructed by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino, while Prinz Eugen was built at the Pola Naval Arsenal.

Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, though Italy refused to relinquish Vulkan; her ultimate fate is unknown.[45] After the Royal Yugoslav Navy acquired Kaiser Max, she was renamed Tivat and either scrapped in 1924,[58] or seized by Italy during World War II, her fate after that being unknown.[45]

Ship Armament[45] Armor[45] Displacement[45] Propulsion[45] Service[45]
Laid down Commissioned Fate
Kaiser Max 8 × 8.3-inch (21 cm) guns 8 in 3,548 long tons (3,605 t) 1 shaft, 1 steam engine, 13.28 knots (24.59 km/h; 15.28 mph) 14 February 1874 26 October 1876 Ceded to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, likely broken up in 1924[58]
Don Juan d'Austria 26 June 1876 Sank, 1919
Prinz Eugen
October 1874 November 1878 Seized by Italy, fate unknown

Tegetthoff

refer to caption
Tegetthoff in Pola in the late 1880s

In 1875, Pöck won approval for a new casemate ship; this new vessel, the last ironclad to be designed by Romako, was named Tegetthoff after Pöck's predecessor. Tegetthoff would be the only new armored vessel constructed during Pöck's eleven years as head of the Austro-Hungarian Navy.[59] As with earlier vessels, significant components had to be ordered from foreign manufacturers, as Austria-Hungary's industrial capacity was insufficient to fill the orders; steel for the armor came from Britain and her guns were manufactured by Krupp in what was now unified Germany. Tegetthoff was armed with a battery of six 11.0-inch (280 mm) guns in the central casemate; at the time she was built by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino,[45] she was the largest and most powerful ship of the Austro-Hungarian fleet, a distinction she held for three decades. She was nevertheless a political compromise, built to an obsolescent design and smaller than foreign casemate ships in order to keep costs low.[60][61]

Tegetthoff's early career was plagued with engine problems that kept her out of service. Though assigned to the Active Squadron in the 1880s, her crew could only keep her engines fully operational in the years 1883, 1887, and 1888. She took part in the visit to Barcelona in 1888 for the Universal Exposition, and was modernized in 1893. Her faulty engines were finally replaced with German-built machinery.

dreadnought battleship Tegetthoff launched that year. In 1917, Mars was converted into a training ship and after the war ended in 1918, was ceded to Italy and broken up in 1920.[45][63]

Ship Armament[45] Armor[45] Displacement[45] Propulsion[45] Service[45]
Laid down Commissioned Fate
Tegetthoff 6 × 11.0-inch (280 mm) guns 9.1–14.0 in (230–356 mm) 7,390 t (7,273 long tons) 1 shaft, 1 compound steam engine, 13 knots (24 km/h; 15 mph) 1 April 1876 5 August 1882 Ceded to Italy, broken up in 1920

Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf

refer to caption
Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf with sun shades erected

In 1881, Pöck finally secured funding for another new ironclad to replace the long-since obsolete Salamander. This new ship was the first Austro-Hungarian ironclad not designed by Romako. The designer, Josef Kuchinka, adopted several innovations for the Austro-Hungarian Navy: Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf was the first barbette ship of the fleet, and the first Austro-Hungarian

triple-expansion steam engines, which gave her a significantly higher top speed than earlier vessels.[65][66]

The ship was constructed at the Pola Naval Arsenal.[65] In 1890, the year after she entered service, Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf took part in a major cruise abroad, which included stops in Britain, Denmark, Sweden, France, and Italy. During the trip, the ship had repeated problems with her Austro-Hungarian-built engines. She participated in a ceremony in 1892 in Genoa, Italy, celebrating the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's voyage across the Atlantic. By 1898, the Austro-Hungarian Navy considered the ship to be obsolete. Like many of their older ironclads built in the 1860s and 1870s, the rapid pace of naval developments rendered her an out of date design after less than ten years in service. The government tried to sell her, Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie, and Tegetthoff to Uruguay in 1908 but the deal fell through.[67]

She served as a coastal defense ship during World War I, based in Cattaro Bay,

Cattaro Mutiny in February 1918.[69] Coastal artillery batteries loyal to the government fired on Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf and scored a hit, killing one of the mutineers and convincing many of the mutinous ships to surrender.[70][71] After the war, she was transferred to the Yugoslav Navy and renamed Kumbor, but served only briefly before being broken up in 1922.[72]

Ship Armament[65] Armor[65] Displacement[65] Propulsion[65] Service
Laid down[65] Commissioned[65] Fate[72]
Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf 3 × 12.0-inch (30.5 cm) guns 12 in 6,829 long tons (6,829 long tons) 2 shafts, 2
triple-expansion steam engines, 15.5 kn
(28.7 km/h; 17.8 mph)
25 January 1884 September 1889 Ceded to Yugoslavia, broken up in 1922

Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie

refer to caption
Kronzprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie

Following Pöck's retirement in 1883, his successor,

Ersatz (replacement) Erzherzog Ferdinand Max while she was under construction by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino to maintain the fiction.[73][65] The resulting ship was a smaller version of Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf, armed with only two 12-inch guns. She reverted to compound steam engines, though was a full two knots faster.[65]

Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie took part in the same trip to northern Europe as Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf in 1889 and the Columbus celebrations in 1892. She participated in an international naval demonstration off Crete in 1897. The ship was decommissioned in 1905,[74] and in 1910 was converted into a barracks ship for the mine warfare school, a role she filled through World War I. Italy received the ship after the war as a prize and she was ultimately broken up in 1926.[65]

Ship Armament[65] Armor[65] Displacement[65] Propulsion[65] Service[65]
Laid down Commissioned Fate
Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie 2 × 12-inch guns 9 in 5,075 long tons (5,075 long tons) 2 shafts, 2 compound steam engines, 17 knots (31 km/h; 20 mph) 12 November 1884 July 1889 Ceded to Italy, broken up in 1926

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e f g Sieche & Bilzer, p. 267.
  2. ^ a b Pawlik 2003, p. 6.
  3. ^ a b Sondhaus 1994, pp. 6–7.
  4. ^ Silverstone 1984, p. 17.
  5. ^ a b Sieche & Bilzer, pp. 267–268.
  6. ^ a b Sokol 1968, pp. 45–47.
  7. ^ Greene & Massignani 1998, p. 210.
  8. ^ Wilson 1896, pp. 235–243, 245.
  9. ^ Silverstone 1984, p. 31.
  10. ^ a b Silverstone 1984, pp. 26, 31.
  11. ^ Sieche & Bilzer, pp. 334–335.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Sieche & Bilzer, p. 268.
  13. ^ Greene & Massignani 1998, pp. 210–211.
  14. ^ Sokol 1968, p. 44.
  15. ^ Wilson 1896, pp. 230–235, 242–245.
  16. ^ Sieche & Bilzer, pp. 267–268, 270.
  17. ^ Sondhaus 1994, pp. 40–41, 45–46.
  18. ^ a b Wilson 1896, p. 226.
  19. ^ Sondhaus 1994, p. 8.
  20. ^ Sokol 1968, p. 48.
  21. ^ Wilson 1896, pp. 236–241, 245.
  22. ^ Sondhaus 1994, pp. 1–3.
  23. ^ Sondhaus 1994, pp. 44–47.
  24. ^ Sieche & Bilzer, pp. 17, 267, 269.
  25. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Sieche & Bilzer, p. 269.
  26. ^ Sondhaus 1994, p. 25.
  27. ^ Pawlik 2003, pp. 43–44.
  28. ^ Sondhaus 1994, p. 78.
  29. ^ Pawlik 2003, p. 43.
  30. ^ Pawlik 2003, p. 81.
  31. ^ Dislère 1877, pp. 24–25.
  32. ^ Sieche & Bilzer, p. 340.
  33. ^ Dislère 1877, p. 24.
  34. ^ Sondhaus 1994, p. 65.
  35. ^ Sondhaus 1994, pp. 107–108.
  36. ^ Pawlik 2003, p. 103.
  37. ^ a b Greger 1976, p. 137.
  38. ^ Sondhaus 1994, pp. 25–26.
  39. ^ Sondhaus 1994, pp. 65, 83.
  40. ^ Pawlik 2003, p. 83.
  41. ^ "Foreign Items", p. 913.
  42. ^ Sieche & Bilzer, pp. 268–271.
  43. ^ Pawlik 2003, p. 90.
  44. ^ Lambert 1984, pp. 114–115.
  45. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Sieche & Bilzer, p. 270.
  46. ^ Sokol 1968, pp. 26, 45–47.
  47. ^ Wilson 1896, pp. 234–236, 238–240, 244.
  48. ^ Sondhaus 1994, p. 21.
  49. ^ Pawlik 2003, p. 48.
  50. ^ Pawlik 2003, pp. 49–50.
  51. ^ Sondhaus 1994, p. 100.
  52. ^ a b Pawlik 2003, pp. 50, 59.
  53. ^ a b Greger 1976, p. 135.
  54. ^ Sondhaus 1994, pp. 45–46.
  55. ^ Brassey 1882, p. 259.
  56. ^ Brassey 1882, p. 258.
  57. ^ Sondhaus 1994, pp. 65, 107, 155.
  58. ^ a b Vego 1982, p. 347.
  59. ^ Sokol 1968, p. 57.
  60. ^ Sondhaus 1994, pp. 37–39, 46–47.
  61. ^ Sokol 1968, p. 60.
  62. ^ Sondhaus 1994, pp. 91, 107.
  63. ^ a b Greger 1976, p. 16.
  64. ^ Sondhaus 1994, p. 219.
  65. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Sieche & Bilzer, p. 271.
  66. ^ Sondhaus 1994, pp. 86, 90, 100.
  67. ^ Sondhaus 1994, pp. 100, 112, 144, 158, 219.
  68. ^ O'Hara, Dickson & Worth 2013, p. 8.
  69. ^ Sokol 1968, p. 132.
  70. ^ Halpern 2004, pp. 52–53.
  71. ^ Sondhaus 1994, pp. 318–324.
  72. ^ a b Sieche, p. 330.
  73. ^ Sondhaus 1994, pp. 86–87.
  74. ^ Sondhaus 1994, pp. 100, 112, 132, 390.

References