LGBT themes in mythology

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LGBT themes in mythology occur in

bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) expression, and modern conceptions of sexuality and gender have been retroactively applied to them. Many mythologies ascribe homosexuality and gender fluidity
in humans to the action of gods or of other supernatural interventions.

The presence of LGBT themes in mythologies has become the subject of intense study. The application of gender studies and queer theory to non-Western mythic tradition is less developed, but has grown since the end of the twentieth century.[1] Myths often include being gay, bisexual, or transgender as symbols for sacred or mythic experiences.[2] Devdutt Pattanaik argues that myths "capture the collective unconsciousness of a people", and that this means they reflect deep-rooted beliefs[3] about variant sexualities that may be at odds with repressive social mores.[4]

Critical perspective

...Queer manifestations of sexuality, though repressed socially, squeeze their way into the myths, legends and lore of the land.

Devdutt Pattanaik, The Man who was a Woman and other Queer Tales of Hindu Lore[4]

The status of mythology varies by

sexual activity and gender constructions.[6]

Since the beginning of

heteronormative and binary view of gender.[4] The queer interpretations may be based on only indirect evidence, such as an unusually close same-sex friendship or dedication to chastity. Such readings have been criticised for ignoring cultural context or mis-applying modern or Western preconceptions,[7][need quotation to verify] for example in assuming that celibacy means only avoiding penetration or reproductive sex (hence allowing homoerotic sex), while ignoring the widespread beliefs in the spiritual potency of semen that mandate an avoidance of all sex.[7]

Researchers have long recognised the presence of LGBT themes in Western mythologies, and have studied the subject intensely. The application of gender studies and queer theory to non-Western mythic tradition is less developed, but has grown since the end of the twentieth century.[1] Devdutt Pattanaik writes that myths "capture the collective unconsciousness of a people", and that this means they reflect deep-rooted beliefs about variant sexualities that may be at odds with repressive social mores.[4]

Many mythologies ascribe homosexuality and gender variance in humans to the action of gods or other supernatural interventions. This includes myths in which gods teach people about same-sex sexual practices by example, as in Aztec religion or Hawaiian religion[8] or myths that explain the cause for transgender identities or homosexuality, such as the story in which Prometheus accidentally creates some people with the wrong genitalia while drunk, or instances of reincarnation or possession by a spirit of the opposite gender in African diaspora religions.

It is common in

polytheistic mythologies to find characters that can change gender, or have aspects of both male and female genders at the same time. Sexual activity with both genders is also common within such pantheons and is compared[by whom?] to modern bisexuality or pansexuality.[9] The creation myths of many traditions involve sexual, bisexual or androgynous motifs, with the world being created by genderless or hermaphrodite beings or through sexual intercourse between beings of the opposite or same apparent gender.[10]

Mythologies of Africa

Egyptian

Few records of homosexuality exist in Egyptian mythology,[11] and the written and pictorial works are reticent in representing sexualities.[12] The sources that do exist indicate that same-sex relations were regarded negatively, and that penetrative sex was seen as an aggressive act of dominance and power, shameful to the receiver (a common view in the Mediterranean basin area).[13]

The most well-known example of this occurs in the power-struggle between the sky-god

Set, the destructive god of the desert. Set's attempts to prove his superiority include schemes of seduction, in which he compliments Horus on his buttocks and tries to anally penetrate him. Unknowingly failing, Set ejaculates between Horus's thighs, allowing Horus to collect his semen to use against him.[12] Set believes that he has conquered Horus by having "performed this aggressive act against him".[13] Horus subsequently throws the semen in the river, so that he may not be said to have been inseminated by Set. Horus then deliberately spreads his own semen on some lettuce, which was Set's favorite food (the Egyptians regarded lettuce as phallic). After Set has eaten the lettuce, they go to the gods to try to settle the argument over the rule of Egypt. The gods first listen to Set's claim of dominance over Horus, and call his semen forth, but it answers from the river, invalidating his claim. Then, the gods listen to Horus' claim of having dominated Set, and call his semen forth, and it answers from inside Set.[14] The association with an evil god such as Set reinforces the negativity towards all participants in homosexual relationships.[13]

Some authors, however, have interpreted an at least more neutral message. In some versions, the act between Horus and Set was consensual, if improper, and Set's consumption of Horus' seed produced Thoth's lunar disc, thus being somewhat positive in outcome.[15] Likewise, Set was not demonised until very late in Egyptian history, and the sexual act has been recorded since the first versions.

Human fertility, a major aspect of Egyptian mythology, often became intertwined with the crop fertility provided by the annual flooding of the river Nile.

Hapy, god of the Nile River, and Wadj-wer, god of the Nile Delta, who – although male – were depicted with female attributes such as pendulous breasts, symbolizing the fertility the river provides.[16]

West African, Yoruba and Dahomean (Vodun)

See also: LGBT themes in African diasporic mythologies

The celestial

Mawu-Lisa, formed by a merger of the twin brother and sister gods Lisa (the moon) and Mawa (the sun). In combined form, they presented as intersex or transgender (with changing gender).[17] Other androgynous gods include Nana Buluku, the "Great mother" that gave birth to Lisa and Mawa and created the universe, and contains both male and female essences.[18]

The Akan people of Ghana have a pantheon of gods that includes personifications of the planets. These personifications manifest as androgynous or transgender deities, and include Abrao (Jupiter),[19] Aku (Mercury),[20] and Awo (Moon).[21]

Possession by spirits is an integral part of Yoruba and other African religions. The possessed are usually women, but can also be men, and both genders are regarded as the "bride" of the deity while possessed. The language used to describe possession has a sexual and violent connotation but unlike in Yoruba-derived American religions, there is no link assumed between possession and homosexual or gender-variant activity in everyday life.[22]

Zimbabwean

The mythology of the Shona people of Zimbabwe is ruled over by an androgynous creator god called Mwari, who occasionally splits into separate male and female aspects.[23]

Mythologies of Americas

Maya and Aztec

The

Maya god Chin, reported from the sixteenth century, is said to have introduced homoeroticism into the Mayan culture and subsequently became associated with same-sex love. His example inspired noble families to purchase young men as lovers for their sons, creating legal relationships akin to marriage.[24]

An important Mayan deity best known from the Classical period (200–900), the so-called Tonsured Maize God. The Classical Maya classified maize as masculine, but the Tonsured version of the Maize God is depicted in ancient Maya art as an effeminate young man associated with art and dance, was represented by queens on Maya stelae, and is thought to have constituted a third gender.[25]

In the Codex Chimalpopoca, the male deity Tezcatlipoca and his alter ego sorcerer [necoc] Yāōtl "Enemies on Both Sides" once transformed themselves into women to copulate with Huemac.[26]

Native American and Inuit

See also: Two-spirit

In Inuit shamanism, the first two humans were Aakulujjuusi and Uumarnituq, both male. This same-sex couple desired company and decided to mate. This sexual encounter resulted in pregnancy for Uumarnituq. As he was physically not equipped to give birth, a spell was cast that changed his sex, giving him a vagina capable of passing the child. The now-female Uumarnituq was also responsible for introducing war into the world via magic, in order to curb overpopulation.

two-spirit shamans. Other myths show Sedna as a bisexual or lesbian, living with her female partner at the bottom of the ocean.[28]

Many stories of Native Americans include Coyote seducing apparently lesbian couples, usually much to his detriment in the end. Other great spirits will sometimes take over a female body if no other presents itself when they wish to seduce a beautiful young woman.

Santería and Candomblé

See also: LGBT themes in Santería and Candomblé mythologies

Oríshas
(spirits), comparable to (and often identified with) the lwa of Voodoo.

In one Cuban Santería "pataki", or mythological story, the

Yemaha is tricked into incestuous sex with her son Shango. To hide her shame at this event, she banished her other two sons, Inle and Abbata, to live at the bottom of the ocean, additionally cutting out Inle's tongue and making Abbata deaf. As a result of their isolation and loneliness, Inle and Abbata become passionate friends and then lovers, able to communicate empathically. This pataki is used to explain the origin of incest, muteness, and deafness in addition to homosexuality.[29]

In Brasil Candomblé, there's Oxumaré.

Haitian Vodou and Louisiana Voodoo

Depiction of Baron Samedi, a bisexual lwa
See also: Haitian Vodou and sexual orientation and LGBT themes in African diasporic mythologies § Voodoo

A large number of lwa (spirits or deities) exist in Haitian Vodou and Louisiana Voodoo. These lwa may be regarded as families of individuals or as a singular entity with distinct aspects, with links to particular areas of life.

Some lwa have particular links with magic,

top-hat and frock coat along with a woman's skirt and shoes. Samedi tends towards "lascivious movements" that cross gender boundaries and also imply a lust for anal sex.[32]

Other bawon displaying gay behaviour are Baron Lundy and Baron Limba, who are lovers and teach a type of homoerotic nude wrestling at their school, believed to increase magical potency.[33] Baron Oua Oua, who often manifests with a childlike aspect, has been called the baron "most closely linked to homosexuality" by Voodoo practitioners.[34]

Another lwa, Erzulie, is associated with love, sensuality and beauty. Erzulie can manifest aspects that are LGBT-related, including transgender or Amazonian traits, in addition to traditionally feminine guises. When inhabiting men, these aspects can result in transgender or homoerotic behaviour, whereas they may result in lesbianism or anti-male sentiment in women. Erzulie Freda is seen as the protector of gay men, and Erzulie Dantor is associated with lesbians.[35]

Mythologies of Asia

Chinese

Main article: LGBT themes in Chinese mythology
Dragon-gods, from Myths and Legends of China, 1922 by E. T. C. Werner. Dragons sometimes sexually assaulted older men.

Daoist and Confucian, and later incorporated Buddhist teachings.[36]

The religion of the Shang and Predynastic Zhou were predominately shamanistic.[citation needed] Male same-sex love was believed to have originated in the mythical South, thus homosexuality is sometimes still called the "Southern wind". From this period, numerous spirits or deities were associated with homosexuality, bisexuality and transgender identities. These include Chou Wang, Lan Caihe,[37][38] Shan Gu, and Yu the Great, and Gun.[39]

Homosexual encounters are common in Chinese folk stories. The animal spirits or fairies often choose same-sex partners, usually young men or boys.[40] According to the Xiaomingxiong, one exception to this age preference is the dragon, a powerful mythological beast. Chinese dragons "consistently enjoy sexual relationships with older men", one example being in the tale of "Old Farmer and a Dragon", in which a sixty-year-old farmer is forcibly sodomised by a passing dragon, resulting in wounds from penetration and bites that require medical attention.[40]

Despite the later literature of some

Hu Tianbao, who fell in love with a handsome young imperial inspector of Fujian. One day Hu Tianbao was caught peeping on the inspector, at which point he confessed his reluctant affections for the other man. The imperial inspector had Hu Tianbao sentenced to death by beating. Since his crime was one of love, underworld officials decided to right the injustice by delegating Hu Tianbao as the god and safeguarder of homosexual affections.[42]

In modern times, the priest Lu Weiming (盧威明) founded a temple in

Yonghe City, Taiwan that worships Tu'er Shen and provides spiritual comfort for homosexual Daoists.[43]

For thousands of years, male homosexuality was referred to in literature by alluding to two semi-legendary figures from the early

archetypes of homosexual love.[44]

Japanese

According to Japanese folklore and mythology, homosexuality was introduced into the world by Shinu No Hafuri (Japanese: 小竹祝) and his lover Ama No Hafuri (Japanese: 天野祝). These were servants of a primordial goddess, possibly the sun goddess Amaterasu. Upon the death of Shinu, Ama committed suicide from grief, and the couple were buried together in the same grave.[45][46] In some tellings of the story, the sun did not shine on the burial place until the lovers were disinterred and buried separately, although whether the offense to the sun was due to the homosexual relationship is not stated.[47]

In another tale, Amaterasu retreats from conflict with her brother Susanoo into the cave of Amano-Iwato, depriving the Earth of sunlight and life. To coax Amaterasu from the cave, the deity of humour and dance, Ame-no-Uzume, performs a bawdy sexual dance that involved exposing her breasts and vulva, and inviting Amaterasu to admire them. On Amaterasu's stepping out of the cave, Ishikori-dome no Mikoto held up a magical mirror, and the combination of the dance and her reflection fascinated Amaterasu so much that she did not notice other spirits closing the cave entrance behind her.[48]

folk Shinto sects, but is not a part of the standard Shinto pantheon.[49]

Other kami associated with same-sex love or gender variance include: Shirabyōshi, female kami represented as half-human, half-snake. They are linked to Shinto priestesses of the same name, who perform ritual dances in traditional men's clothing;[50] Oyamakui, a transgender mountain spirit that protects industry and childbearing;[51] and Inari Ōkami, the kami of agriculture and rice, who is depicted as various genders, the most common representations being a young female food goddess, an old man carrying rice, and an androgynous bodhisattva.[52] Inari is further associated with foxes and kitsune, shapeshifting fox trickster spirits. Kitsune sometimes disguise themselves as women, hiding their true gender, to trick human men into sexual relations with them.[53] A common belief in medieval Japan was that any woman encountered alone, especially at dusk or night, could be a fox.[54]

Indian

Buddhist

See also: Buddhism and sexual orientation

In traditional

nāga, a serpent king of Indian folklore, who took the form of a handsome youth. The relationship became sexual, causing Ānanda to regretfully break off contact, to avoid distraction from spiritual matters.[56]

According to one legend, male same-sex love was introduced into Japan by the founder of Shingon Buddhism, Kūkai. Historians point that this is probably not true, since Kūkai was an enthusiastic follower of monastic regulations.[57]

Some bodhisattvas change sexes in different incarnations, which causes some to associate this with homosexuality and transgender identities. Guanyin,[58][59] Avalokiteśvara,[60] and Tara are known to have different gender representations.[60]

Hindu

Ardhanarisvara
Main article: LGBT themes in Hindu mythology
See also:
LGBT topics and Hinduism

""Hindu society had a clear cut idea of all these people in the past. Now that we have put them under one label 'LGBT', there is lot more confusion and other identities have got hidden."[61]

— Gopi Shankar Madurai in National Queer Conference 2013

hermaphroditic beings. Gods change sex or manifest as an Avatar of the opposite sex in order to facilitate sexual congress.[62][63][64][65] Non-divine beings also undergo sex-changes through the actions of the gods, as the result of curses or blessings, or as the natural outcome of reincarnation
.

Hindu mythology contains numerous incidents where sexual interactions serve a non-sexual, sacred purpose; in some cases, these are same-sex interactions. Sometimes the gods condemn these interactions but at other times they occur with their blessing.[66]

In addition to stories of gender and sexual variance that are generally accepted by mainstream Hinduism, modern scholars and

activists have highlighted LGBT themes in lesser known texts, or inferred them from stories that traditionally are considered to have no homoerotic subtext. Such analyses have caused disagreements about the true meaning of the ancient stories.[67]

Philippines

See also:
Deities of Philippine mythology

In Tagalog mythology, the hermaphrodite Lakapati is identified as the most important fertility deity in the Tagalog pantheon. A prayer dedicated to Lakapati was recited by children when sowing seeds: "Lakapati, pakanin mo yaring alipin mo; huwag mong gutumin (Lakapati, feed this thy slave; let him not hunger)".[68][69]

In

transition into male warriors. The most famous of which are Nagmalitong Yawa and Matan-ayon. In one epic, after Buyong Humadapnon was captured by the magical binukot Sinangkating Bulawan, the also powerful female binukot, Nagmalitong Yawa, cast her magic and transitioned into a male warrior named Buyong Sumasakay. He afterwards successfully rescued the warrior Buyong Humadapnon. In a similar epic, the female binukot Matan-ayon, in search of her husband Labaw Donggon, sailed the stormy seas using the golden ship Hulinday together with her less powerful brother-in-law Paubari. Once when she was bathing after sailing far, Buyong Pahagunong spotted her and tried to make her his bride. The event was followed by a series of combat, where in one instance, Matan-ayon transitioned into the male warrior Buyong Makalimpong. After a series of battles, Labaw Donggon arrives and attacks Buyong Pahagunong, while Buyong Makalimpong once again transitioned into Matan-ayon. Matan-ayon then has a conversation with the supreme goddess Laonsina about why the men are fighting and agree to sit back and watch them if they truly are seeking death.[70]

In Waray mythology, the supreme deity is said to be a single deity with both female and male aspects. The female aspect was Malaon, the ancient and understanding deity, while the male aspect was Makapatag, the fearful and destructive leveler deity.[71]

Abrahamic

Christian

Saint Sebastian, history's first recorded LGBT icon
The destruction of Sodom as illustrated by Sebastian Münster (1564)
See also: Christianity and sexual orientation

The saints

Koinē Greek: ἐρᾰσταί, romanized: erastaí, lit. 'lovers'.[72] Historian John Boswell considered their relationship to be an example of an early Christian same-sex union, reflecting his contested view of tolerant early Christian attitudes toward homosexuality.[72]

The official stance of the Eastern Orthodox Church is that the ancient Eastern tradition of adelphopoiesis, which was done to form a "brotherhood" in the name of God and is traditionally associated with these two saints, had no sexual implications.

In a similar matter regarding paired male saints, Saints Cosmas and Damian have been referred to as potentially originally having homoerotic overtones, and later Christian traditions added them being brothers to conceal that.[73]

closet case."[75][76]

Islamic and Pre-Islamic Arabian

See also: LGBT people and Islam

Quran 15:27) and which correspond to the second group of angels who were created on the fifth day of Creation in the text of Jewish Kabbalah called the Bahir "Illumination", which were created from "flameless fire". Some believe their shape-shifting abilities allow them to change gender at will but this is not consistent throughout the Islamic world although their ability to fly and travel exceedingly fast are consistent traits of the Jinn. The word Jinn means "hidden from sight"[77] and they are sometimes considered to be led by Iblis,[78] representing powers of magic and rebellion, and posing as bringers of wealth as the devil acclaim.[79]

These traits are associated with the Jinn on account of Iblis' rebellion against the order of God to acknowledge Adam's ability to be superior to the Jinn and his refusal to bow down stating that "he was created from fire and Adam was created from clay" (

Quran 7
:11-12). The ability of the Jinn to travel to the heavens and listen to the discussion of angels and bring back what they overhear and relay it to seers and oracles has linked them with magic (Quran 72:8-10).

Jinn are served by the al-Jink and

Quran 53:19-23.[citation needed
]

Arabian mythology also contains magical sex-changing springs or fountains, such as al-Zahra. Upon bathing in or drinking from al-Zahra, a person will change sex.

Swat in northern Pakistan often includes same-sex relationships in which the "beloved" is a handsome younger man or boy.[84]

Judaism

David and Jonathan in "La Somme le Roy" (1290 CE)
See also:
LGBT topics and Judaism

The story of

biblical exegesis argues that the relationship between the two is merely a close platonic friendship.[86][87] However, there has recently been a tradition of interpreting the love between David and Jonathan as romantic or sexual.[88]

Another biblical hero,

Ham enters the tent, he sees his father naked, and Canaan, one of Ham's sons is cursed with banishment. In Jewish tradition, it is also suggested that Ham had anal sex with Noah or castrated him.[89]

Mesopotamian: Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, Assyrian, Phoenician, and Canaanite

The ancient regions of Mesopotamia and Canaan were inhabited by a succession of overlapping civilisations: Sumer, Phoenicia, Agade, Babylonia, and Assyria. The mythologies of these people were interlinked, often containing the same stories and mythological gods and heroes under different names.

The

Ninmah.[n 1] These included "the woman who cannot give birth" and "the one who has no male organ or female organ", which have been regarded as being third gender or androgynous. Enki, the supreme god, is accepting of these people and assigns them roles in society as naditu (priestesses) and girsequ (servants to the king).[90]

The Akkadian mythical epic

Atrahasis contains another iteration of this story in which Enki specifically requests that Nintu create a "third-category" of people that includes third-gender people, barren women, and an "infant-stealing demon".[90][n 1]

In ancient Mesopotamia, worship of the goddess Inanna included "soothing laments" sung by third-gender priests called "

Ishtar, making them feminine.[n 2] The changes may also facilitate possession by the goddess, causing a psychological change or prompting physical castration.[92]

The relationship between the semi-divine hero Gilgamesh and his "intimate companion" Enkidu in the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh has been interpreted as a sexual one by some modern scholars. Enkidu was created as a companion to Gilgamesh by the goddess Aruru, and civilised by a priestess.[n 1][93] As Gilgamesh and Enkidu were of similar ages and status, their relationship has been seen as relatively egalitarian, in contrast with the typically pederastic mode of ancient Greece.[11]

Zoroastrianism

See also: Zoroastrianism and sexual orientation

Zoroastrianism has been said to have a "hatred of male anal intercourse". This is reflected in its mythology: When Ahriman, the "Spirit of Aridity and Death" and "Lord of Lies", seeks to destroy the world, he engages in self-sodomy. This homosexual self-intercourse causes an "explosion of evil power" and results in the birth of a host of evil minions and demons.[94] Ahriman has also been regarded as the patron of men who partake of homosexual sex.[95] However, this negative portrayal of homosexuality in Zoroastrianism is not found in the Gathas, their original holy book which is said to be the direct sayings of the prophet Zoroaster.

Mythologies of Europe

Celtic

Celtic mythology has no known stories of gay or lesbian relationships nor LGBT characters.[96] Peter Chicheri argues that non-procreative sexual experiences were removed from myths by Christians.[97][98]

Ferdiadh may have had a sexual relationship.[99] The tale has led to comparisons to Greek "warrior-lovers", and Cúchulainn's reaction to the death of Ferdiadh in particular compared to Achilles' lament for Patroclus.[99]

In the Fourth Branch of the

stag for a year, then a sow, and finally a wolf. Gilfaethwy becomes a hind, a wild boar, and a she-wolf. Each year they must mate and produce an offspring which is sent to Math: Hyddwn, Hychddwn and Bleiddwn; after three years Math releases his nephews from their punishment.[100]

In the Matter of Britain, originating in Welsh mythology, the Knights of the Round Table, Lancelot and Galehaut, share intimacy as recounted in the 13th century Lancelot-Grail. The nature of their relationship is a subject of debate among modern scholars, with some interpreting it as intimate friendship and others as love similar to that between Lancelot and Guinevere.[101]

The 14th-century chivalric romance Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is considered by some modern scholars to blur the line between male homosociality common at the time and male homosexuality. The Green Knight's attractiveness defies the homosocial rules of King Arthur's court and poses a threat to their way of life, with the friendship between him and Gawain being seen with homoerotic overtones.[102]

Greek and Roman

Main article:
LGBT themes in classical mythology

Greek mythology features male same-sex love in many of the constituent myths. These myths have been described as being crucially influential on Western LGBT literature, with the original myths being constantly re-published and re-written, and the relationships and characters serving as icons.[5] In comparison, lesbianism is rarely found in classical myths.[103]

Apollo, an eternal beardless youth himself, had the most male lovers of all the Greek gods, as could be expected from a god who presided over the palaestra.[157] In spite of having no male lovers himself, the love god Eros was sometimes considered patron of pederastic love between males.[158] Aphroditus was an androgynous Aphrodite from Cyprus, in later mythology became known as Hermaphroditus the son of Hermes and Aphrodite.

Iphis and Caeneus change sex.[159]

Norse

In the Norse

passive partner in homosexual intercourse (see Ergi).[citation needed
]

The poem

Grettir Ásmundarson, who had sexual intercourse with both men and women, and even animals. For always taking the active role in sex, no one attached opprobrium to Grettir for his vast omnisexual prowess.[citation needed
]

Norse god of fertility, may have been worshiped by a group of homosexual or effeminate priests, as suggested by Saxo Grammaticus in his Gesta Danorum.[160]

Some of the Norse gods were capable of changing sex at will. For example Loki, the trickster god, frequently disguised himself as a woman. In one myth, he turned himself into a mare and, after having sex with the stallion Svaðilfari, he gave birth to Sleipnir, an eight-legged foal.[161] Odin was practiced in woman's magic, though it is unknown as to why magic was thought of as effeminate in this time Odin was accused of ergi.[citation needed] Brit Solli suggests that this may connect Odin to a shamanistic cult that viewed gender transgression as a source of power.[162]

The sociologist David F. Greenberg points out:

at first...stigmatization did not extend to active male homosexuality. To take revenge on the disloyal priest Bjorn and his mistress Thorunnr in the Gudmundar Saga "it was decided to put Thorunnr into bed with every buffoon, and to do that to Bjorn the priest, which was considered no less dishonorable." Dishonorable to Bjorn, not to his rapists. In the Edda, Sinfjotli insults Gudmundr by asserting that "all the einherjar (Odin's warriors in Valhalla) fought with each other to win the love of Gudmundr (who was male)." Certainly he intended no aspersions on the honor of the einherjar. Then Sinfjotli boasts that "Gundmundr was pregnant with nine wolf cubs and that he, Sinfjotli, was the father." Had the active, male homosexual role been stigmatized, Sinfjotli would hardly have boasted of it.[163]

Mythologies of Oceania

Australian Aboriginal

The indigenous population of Australia have a shamanistic religion, which includes a pantheon of gods. The Rainbow Serpent of the Wunambal known as Ungud has been described as androgynous or transgender. Clever men identify their erect penises with Ungud and his androgyny inspires some to undergo ceremonial subincision of the penis.[164] Angamunggi is another transgender rainbow-serpent god, worshipped as a "giver of life".[165]

Other Australian mythological beings include Labarindja, blue-skinned wild women or "demon women" with hair the colour of smoke.[166] Stories about them show them to be completely uninterested in romance or sex with men, and any man forcing his attention upon them could die, due to the "evil magic in their vaginas". They are sometimes depicted as gynandrous or intersex, having both a penis and a vagina. This is represented in ritual by having their part played by men in women's clothes.[167]

Pacific Island: Celebes, Vanuatu, Borneo and the Philippines

See also: Bakla

Third gender, or gender variant, spiritual intermediaries are found in many Pacific island cultures, including religion in pre-colonial Philippines, such as the bajasa of the Torajan people of Sulawesi, the bantut of the Tausūg people of the south Philippines, and the bayogin. These shamans are typically biologically male but display feminine behaviours and appearance.[168] The pre-Christian Philippines had a polytheistic religion, which included the transgender or hermaphroditic gods Bathala and Malyari, whose names means "Man and Woman in One" and "Powerful One" respectively; these gods are worshipped by the Bayagoin.[169]

The Big Nambas of Vanuatu have the concept of divinely approved homoerotic relationships between men, with the older partner called the dubut. This name is derived from the word for shark, referring to the patronage of the shark-human hydrid creator god Qat.[170]

Among their pantheon of deities, the Ngaju of Borneo worship Mahatala-Jata, an androgynous or transgender god. The male part of this god is Mahatala, who rules the Upperworld, and is depicted as a hornbill living above the clouds on a mountain-top; the female part is Jata, who rules the Underworld from under the sea in the form of a katuali. These two manifestations are linked via a jewel-encrusted bridge that is seen in the physical world as a rainbow. Mahatala-Jata is served by balian, female hierodules, and basir, transgender shamans metaphorically described as "water snakes which are at the same time hornbills".[171]

Similar transgender shamans, the "manang bali", are found in the

sister-in-law, but this treatment also resulted in Menjara changing into a woman or androgynous being.[173]

Polynesian: Hawaiian and Māori

Polynesian religions feature a complex pantheon of deities. Many of these gods refer to their companions of either sex as "aikane", a term encompassing passionate friendship and sexual-love, often in bisexual contexts.[174][175]

Wahine-ʻŌmaʻo, a goddess of

Lohiau to Pele after his death. During his life Lohiau was the lover of both the female Pele and male Paoa.[180]

Other Polynesian LGBT figures include the Hawaiian Haakauilanani, a male servant and lover to the "Earth mother" creator goddess Papahānaumoku and her husband Wākea.[181] Non-divine LGBT characters also exist in Polynesian mythology, such as the male priest Pakaʻa and his chief and lover Keawe-nui-a-ʻUmi,[182] and the famed fisherman Nihooleki, who was married to a woman but also had a relationship with the pig god Kamapuaʻa.[183] Kamapua'a was also responsible for sending the love-god Lonoikiaweawealoha to seduce Pele's brother gods Hiiakaluna and Hiiakalalo, hence distracting them from attacking him.[184] Kamapuaʻa's other male lovers included Limaloa, the bisexual god of the sea and mirages.[185]

Hiʻiaka, a daughter or sister of Pele, had aikane (from: "ai", meaning: [intimate sexual relationship]; kane, [man, husband, consort]) relationships with several female lovers including Hopoe, Omeo, Wahineʻomaʻo, and Pauo-Palae.

The Healing Stones of

Waikiki Beach and may be the only monument in the world to honor and uplift gender fluidity.[2][3]

See also

Notes

  1. ^
    Belet-ili (Babylonian: Lady of the gods), Aruru, Mami, Mamma. (Dalley 1998
    , p. 326)
  2. ^ a b Inanna (Sumerian) is identified with Ishtar (Babylonian), Astarte (Phoenician), Atargatis (Syrian) and in later texts Aphrodite (Greek).

References

Citations

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  2. ^ a b c Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. ix, "Introduction"
  3. ^ Pattanaik (2002), p. 4: "Myths, legend, and lore capture the collective unconscious of a people. [...] To understand the unexpressed worlds of a people, to decipher coping skills of a culture, an unraveling of myth, a decoding of lore is essential."
  4. ^ a b c d Pattanaik (2002), p. 3
  5. ^ a b c Pequigney (2002), p. 1
  6. ISBN 978-0-8153-1920-7
    . [...] mythic narratives [...] establish and reinforce a variety of social institutions and mores, including gender roles, sexual norms, and kinship systems [...].
  7. ^ a b Pattanaik (2002), p. 16
  8. ^ Long (2004), p. 8
  9. ^ Conner & Sparks (2004), Introduction
  10. ^ Penczak (2003), p. 34, "In the beginning-Creation Myths"
  11. ^ a b Murray & Roscoe (1997), p. 61
  12. ^ a b Haggerty (2000), p. 422
  13. ^ a b c d Haggerty (2000), p. 423
  14. ^ Theology website: The 80 Years of Contention Between Horus and Seth
  15. ^ Bruce L. Gerig. "Homosexuality in Ancient Egypt". The Epistle: A Web Magazine for Christian Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual & Transgender People.
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  17. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 228, "Mawu-Lisa"
  18. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 247, "Nanan-bouclou"
  19. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 40, "Abrao"
  20. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 47, "Aku"
  21. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 79, "Awo"
  22. ^ Murray & Roscoe (2001), pp. 99–100
  23. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 243, "Mwari"
  24. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 110, "Chin"
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  42. S2CID 144047410
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  49. ISBN 0-520-20909-5
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  50. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 305 "Shirabyoshi"
  51. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 259, "Oyamakui"
  52. ^ Smyers (1999), p. 8
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  58. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 198, "Kannon"; p. 208, "Guan Yin"
  59. ISBN 9780821404713
    . In Hindu myth, Kuan-Yin is of both sexes...
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  64. ^ Vanita & Kidwai (2001), pp. 69, 94
  65. ^ Smith, B.L., p. 5, Legitimation of Power in South Asia
  66. ^ Pattanaik (2002), p. 99; Vanita & Kidwai (2001), pp. 100–102
  67. ^ Greenberg (2007), p. 307; Vanita & Kidwai (2001)
  68. ISBN 978-971-550-135-4
    . During sacrifices made in a new field to Lakapati, a major fertility deity, the farmer would hold up a child and say, "Lakapati, pakanin mo yaring alipin mo; huwag mong gutumin [Lakapati, feed this thy slave; let him not hunger]" (San Buenaventura 1613, 361).
  69. ISBN 978-0-244-34873-1
    . Children were taught this prayer to Lakapati. They recited it when they sowed seeds.
  70. ^ Change Me Into A Chieftain: Resistance and Persistence in Upland Panay Island, Philippines, D. Gowey, Arizona State University
  71. ^ Demetrio, F. R., & Cordero-Fernando, G. (1991). The Soul Book . Quezon City: GCF Books
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  73. ISBN 0-226-41041-2
    . on the nature of "brotherly love", p.174
  74. ^ a b "Subjects of the Visual Arts: St. Sebastian". glbtq.com. 2002. Archived from the original on 1 September 2007. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
  75. doi:10.4324/9780203432433_chapter_five
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  76. ^ "Arrows of desire: How did St Sebastian become an enduring, homo-erotic icon? – Features, Art". The Independent. 10 February 2008. Retrieved 16 July 2009.
  77. ISBN 978-0-87950-003-0
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  78. Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic
     (3 ed.). Beirut, Labanon: Librairie du Liban. p. 2.
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  80. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 50, "Al-jink"; p. 240, "Mukhannathun"
  81. ^ Murray & Roscoe (1997), p. 56
  82. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), pp. 225–226, "Manat"; p. 50, "Al-lat"; p. 51, "Al-Uzza"
  83. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 51, "Al-Zahra"
  84. ^ Murray & Roscoe (1997), p. 36
  85. ^ Haggerty (2000), p. 380
  86. ^ DeYoung, p. 290[full citation needed]
  87. ^ Martti Nissinen, Kirsi Stjerna, Homoeroticism in the Biblical World, p. 56
  88. ^ Boswell (1994), pp. 135–137
    Halperin, David M. (1990). One Hundred Years of Homosexuality. New York: Routledge. p. 83.
    When Heroes Love: The Ambiguity of Eros in the Stories of Gilgamesh and David. New York & Chichester: Columbia University Press. 2005. pp. 165–231.
    Homosexuality and Liminality in the Gilgamesh and Samuel. Amsterdam: Hakkert. 2007. pp. 28–63.
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  90. ^ a b Murray & Roscoe (1997), p. 67
  91. ^ a b Murray & Roscoe (1997), p. 65
  92. ^ Murray (2002), p. 296[full citation needed]
  93. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 159, "Gilgamesh and Enkidu"
  94. ^ Long (2004), p. 68
  95. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), pp. 45, "Ahriman"
  96. ^ Cherici (1995), pp. 21 & 121
  97. ^ Cherici (1995), pp. 75 & 146
  98. ^ Cherici (1995), p. 21
  99. ^ a b Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 116 "Cú chulainn and Ferdiadh"
  100. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 159, "Gilfaethwy and Gwydion"
  101. ISBN 9780874130249
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  102. JSTOR 3250731
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  105. ^ Penczak (2003), p. 17
  106. ^ Clement of Alexandria, Protrepticus II.38.2
  107. ^ Callimachus, 'Hymn to Apollo'
  108. Ptolemy Hephaestion
    , New History Book 4 (summary from Photius, Myriobiblon 190)
  109. ^ Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 4.465
  110. ^ Conon, 33
  111. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 3.13.4–5
  112. ^ Ovid's Metamorphoses, 10
  113. ^ 'Photius', Bibliotheca
  114. ^ a b c Pequigney (2002), p. 2
  115. ^ Virgil, Aeneid, 391-394
  116. ^ Lucian Gallus 3. For the myth, see also the scholiast to Aristophanes Av. 835; Eustathius, Ad Odysseam 1.300; Ausonius, 26.2.27; Libanius, Progymnasmata 2.26.
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  118. ^
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  119. Servius' Commentary on Virgil, Aeneid 4.402
  120. ^ Ovid's Metamorphoses, 5
  121. ^ Photius, Bibliotheca excerpts, 190.33
  122. ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses, 2, 367 sqq.
  123. ^ Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses, 12
  124. ^ Virgil, Aeneid 10.325
  125. ^ a b c Pequigney (2002), p. 3
  126. ISBN 9780415093125
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  127. ^ Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses, 8
  128. ^ Aelian, "On Animals", 14. 28
  129. ^ a b c Athenaeus, Deipnosophists, 13.80
  130. ^ a b c d Pequigney (2002), p. 4
  131. ^ Philostratus the Elder, Imagines 1. 10
  132. ISBN 9780191083112
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  133. De Astronomica
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  134. ^ Photius, Bibliotheca excerpts, 190.50
  135. ^ Photius, Bibliotheca excerpts - GR
  136. ^ Serv. Ecl. 8.30
  137. ^ Licymnius, Fragment 771 (from Athenaeus, Scholars at Dinner) (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric V)
  138. ISBN 9780192804761
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  139. ^ a b Nonnus, Dionysiaca
  140. ^ Pseudo-Plutarch, On Music, 7.
  141. ^ Philostratus, Lives of the Sophists, 2.5.5.
  142. ISBN 9780739122426
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  143. ^ Lucian, Erotes
  144. ^ Lycophron, Alexandra 134.
  145. ^ Euripides, The Cyclops 580—585.
  146. ^ Aelian, On Animals, 14. 28
  147. ISBN 9780198150619
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  148. ^ Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses, 30
  149. ISBN 9780823228928
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  150. Augustine, City of God Bk. 18, 18.13
  151. Tzetzes, Ad Lycophronem, 355
  152. ^
    Pseudo-Apollodorus
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  153. ^ "OVID, HEROIDES IV - Theoi Classical Texts Library". www.theoi.com. Retrieved 2022-09-11.
  154. ^ Ovid's Heroides, 4
  155. ^ Kerenyi 1951, p. 95.
  156. ^ Downing (1989), p. 198
  157. ^ Lucian, Anacharsisor Athletics, 7
  158. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p.133, "Erotes"
  159. ^ "OVID, METAMORPHOSES 12 - Theoi Classical Texts Library". www.theoi.com. Retrieved 2018-01-11.
  160. ^ Dumézil, Georges. From Myth to Fiction: the Saga of Hadingus. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1970. (p115)
  161. ^ Ross, Margaret Clunies (1998). "Prolonged echoes: Old Norse myths in medieval northern society" (PDF). Northern Studies. 36. Odense University Press: 131–140. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-07-02. Retrieved 2019-07-02.
  162. S2CID 31969693
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  163. ISBN 0-226-30627-5
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  164. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 329, "Ungud"
  165. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 58, "Angamunggi"
  166. ^ Róheim (1969), p. 388
  167. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 211, "Labarindja"
  168. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 81, "Bajasa"; p. 82, "Bantut"; p. 85, "Bayoguin"
  169. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 84, "Bathala"; p. 225, "Malyari"
  170. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 90, "Big Nambas"
  171. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 224, "Mahatala-Jata"
  172. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 225, "Manang bali"
  173. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), 230, "Menjaya Raja Manang"
  174. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 46, "Aikane"
  175. PMID 2230108
    .
  176. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 344, "Wahineomo"
  177. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 246, "Pele"
  178. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 263, "Pauopalae"
  179. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 254, "Omeo"
  180. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 214, "Lohiau"
  181. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 180, "Haakauilanani"
  182. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 260, "Pakaa"
  183. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 249, "Nihooleki"
  184. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 217, "Lonoikiaweawealoha"
  185. ^ Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998), p. 215, "Limaloa"

Bibliography

External links

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