List of sieges of Constantinople
The following is a list of sieges of Constantinople, a historic city located in an area which is today part of Istanbul, Turkey. Constantinople was built on the land that links Europe to Asia through Bosporus and connects the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea. As a transcontinental city within the Silk Road, Constantinople had a strategic value for many empires and kingdoms who tried to conquer it throughout history.
Originally known as Byzantium in classical antiquity, the first recorded siege of the city occurred in 510 BC by the Achaemenid Empire under the command of Otanes. Following this successful siege, the city fell under the rule of Persians until it won its independence again, and around 70 BC it became part of the Roman Republic, which was succeeded by the Roman Empire. Despite being part of Rome, it was a free city until it became under siege by Septimius Severus between 193–196 and was partially sacked during the civil war. After it was captured by Constantine the Great in 324, it became the capital of the Roman Empire, under the name of New Rome. It later became known as Constantinople, and in the years that followed it came under attack by both Byzantine pretenders fighting for the throne and also by foreign powers for a total of 22 times. The city remained under Byzantine rule until the Ottoman Empire took over as a result of the siege in 1453, known as the Fall of Constantinople, after which no other sieges took place.
Constantinople was besieged 36 times throughout its history. Out of the ten sieges that occurred during its time as a city-state and while it was under Roman rule, six were successful, three were repelled and one was lifted as a result of the agreement between the parties. Three of these sieges were carried out by the Romans who claimed the throne during civil war. Of all the sieges that took place from its founding by Constantine the Great till 1453, only three were successful, 21 were unsuccessful, and three were lifted by reaching mutual agreements. Four of these sieges took place during civil wars. The Sack of Constantinople that took place in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade caused the city to fall and to be established as the capital of the Latin Empire. It also sent the Byzantine imperial dynasty to exile, who founded the Empire of Nicaea. Constantinople came under Byzantine rule again in 1261 who ruled for nearly two centuries. The city was taken by the Ottomans with the siege in 1453, and as a result the Byzantine Empire came to an end. The city has been under the rule of Turks since the last siege, except for the period of Allied occupation from 1920 to 1923.
Sieges
Footnotes
- ^ The "Result" column is relative to the side that carries out the siege.
- ^ As a result of the agreement reached with the mediator of Bithynia, the siege was lifted.
- ^ While some sources have used Cicero and Tacitus's writings as a reference to argue that the city was in fact under a siege until it "repelled the enemies", other ancient writings found mention that a siege was planned through the sea but did not take place because of stormy weather conditions.[27][28]
- ^ Byzantine sources give 860 and Russian sources give 866 as the year in which this siege occurred, although it is accepted that the latter is wrong.
- ^ The besieging army retreated after Byzantine allies,the Hungarians attacked the Ottoman lands.
- Konstantin Josef Jireček gave it as 1394, while Feridun Emecen and Haldun Eroğlu believed that it was 1396. In addition, some sources mention that the siege started in 1391 and ended in 1396, and that between these years, there was only one siege, the severity of which increased and decreased from time to time.[106][110]
- ^ The siege was lifted after Timur attacked the Ottoman lands.
- ^ The siege was lifted after Mehmed Çelebi's move to Rumeli territory to fight against Musa Çelebi.
- ^ The siege was lifted after Mustafa Çelebi's move to Anatolian lands to fight against Murad II.
Notes
- ISBN 978-975-458-721-0.
- ISBN 978-90-04-28214-8.
- ^ Kuban, Doğan (1993). "Bizantion". Dünden Bugüne İstanbul Ansiklopedisi. Vol. 2. İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yayınları. pp. 258–260.
- ^ Yavuz 2014, p. 169.
- ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 1.
- ^ Arslan 2010, p. 78.
- S2CID 144417364.
- ^ Hughes 2017, p. 538.
- ^ Yavuz 2014, p. 191.
- ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 39.
- ISBN 978-605-4018-09-3
- ISBN 0-415-22369-5.
- ^ Hughes 2017, p. 119.
- ^ Yavuz 2014, p. 221.
- ^ Arslan 2010, p. 197.
- ISBN 978-975-16-0984-7.
- ^ Hughes 2017, p. 143.
- ISBN 978-975-7938-04-0.
- ^ Yavuz 2014, p. 275.
- ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 81.
- ^ Arslan 2010, p. 233.
- ^ Arslan 2007, p. 56.
- ISSN 1307-5756.
- ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 92.
- ^ Arslan 2010, p. 243.
- ^ Yavuz 2014, p. 310.
- ISBN 978-91-20-21979-0.
- ^ a b Yavuz 2014, p. 344.
- ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 129.
- ^ Arslan 2010, p. 343.
- ^ Arslan 2007, p. 334.
- ISBN 978-0-19-022459-2.
- ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 133.
- ^ Arslan 2010, p. 430.
- ^ Hughes 2017, p. 166.
- ^ Freely 2011, p. 109.
- ^ Yavuz 2014, p. 365.
- ISBN 978-0-85323-218-6.
- ^ Gibbon, Edward (1988). Roma İmparatorluğu'nun Gerileyiş ve Çöküş Tarihi. Vol. I. Asım Baltacıgil, çev. İstanbul: Bilim, Felsefe, Sanat Yayınları. p. 444.
- ^ Freely 2011, p. 318.
- ^ "İstanbul". Meydan Larousse. Vol. 10. İstanbul: Sabah. 1992. p. 77.
- ^ Yavuz 2014, p. 387.
- ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 153.
- ^ Norwich 2013a, p. 45.
- ^ Hughes 2017, p. 231.
- ^ Yavuz 2014, p. 393.
- ISBN 978-1-108-01456-4. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
- ]
- ]
- ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 95.
- ^ Norwich 2013a, p. 240.
- ^ Reazaei, Iman S. (September 2016). "V.-VII. Yüzyıllarda Bizans-Sâsânî İlişkileri". İraniyat Dergisi (1). Ankara: İranoloji Derneği Yayınları: 18–31.
- S2CID 161590308.
- ISBN 978-0-19-991636-8.
- ISBN 978-2-916716-45-9
- ISSN 1301-3394.
- ^ Unan, Fahri (14 September 2009). "Müslümanlar ve İstanbul". hacettepe.edu.tr. Archived from the original on 25 August 2017. Retrieved 26 August 2017.
- ^ Uçar, Şahin (1990). Anadolu'da İslâm-Bizans Mücadelesi. İstanbul: İşaret Yayınları. p. 82.
- ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 249.
- ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 115.
- ^ Norwich 2013a, p. 263.
- Hitti, Philip K.(1989). Siyâsî ve Kültürel İslam Tarihi. Vol. II. Salih Tuğ, çev. İstanbul: Boğaziçi Yayınları. p. 320.
- ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 144.
- ^ Hughes 2017, p. 1283.
- OCLC 6415521.
- ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 253.
- ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 145.
- ^ Norwich 2013a, p. 286.
- ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 265.
- ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 188.
- ^ Vasiliev 2016, p. 326.
- ^ Norwich 2013b, p. 28.
- ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 192.
- ^ Vasiliev 2016, p. 319.
- ^ Norwich 2013b, p. 40.
- ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 282.
- ^ Vasiliev 2016, p. 322.
- ^ Norwich 2013b, p. 66.
- ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 287.
- ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 241.
- ^ Vasiliev 2016, p. 369.
- ^ Runciman 1930, pp. 164–165.
- ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 289.
- ^ Vasiliev 2016, p. 371.
- ^ Norwich 2013b, p. 129.
- ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 308.
- ^ Norwich 2013b, p. 248.
- ^ Hughes 2017, p. 1289.
- ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 341.
- ^ Vasiliev 2016, p. 518.
- ^ Freely 2011, p. 159.
- ISBN 975-7632-54-6.
- ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 386.
- ^ Vasiliev 2016, p. 520.
- ^ Robert de Clari (1994). İstanbul'un Zaptı (1204). Beynun Akyavaş, çev. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları. p. VI.
- ISSN 2149-0678.
- ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 349.
- ^ a b Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 405.
- ^ Vasiliev 2016, p. 592.
- ISBN 978-605-396-093-5.
- ^ Hughes 2017, p. 1296.
- ^ Freely 2011, p. 168.
- ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 499.
- ^ Hughes 2017, p. 1298.
- ^ Baştav 1989, p. 74.
- ^ a b Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 387.
- ISSN 1015-1826.
- ^ Demirkent, Işın (2001). "İstanbul". İslâm Ansiklopedisi. Vol. 23. İstanbul: Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları. pp. 205–212.
- ^ Baştav 1989, p. 83.
- ^ a b Yinanç, Mükrimin Halil (1979). "Bayezid I". İslâm Ansiklopedisi. Vol. 2. İstanbul: Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü. pp. 369–392.
- ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 390.
- ISSN 0257-4152.
- ^ Baştav 1989, p. 91.
- ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 393.
- ISBN 978-975-16-2322-5.
- ISBN 975-389-427-9.
- ^ Tekirdağ, Şehabeddin (1979). "Mûsâ Çelebî". İslâm Ansiklopedisi. Vol. 8. İstanbul: Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü. pp. 661–666.
- ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 515.
- ^ İnalcık 2014, p. 105.
- ^ İnalcık, Halil (1979). "Murad II". İslâm Ansiklopedisi. Vol. 8. İstanbul: Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü. p. 600.
- ^ Vasiliev 2016, p. 714.
- ISBN 975-470-283-7.
- ISBN 978-975-6397-96-1.
- ISBN 975296043X.
- ISBN 978-9944-905-96-1.
References
- Arslan, Murat (2010), İstanbul'un Antikçağ Tarihi: Klasik ve Hellenistik Dönemler, İstanbul: Odin Yayıncılık, ISBN 978-975-9078-01-0
- Arslan, Murat; Kaçar, Turhan (2017), Byzantion'dan Constantinopolis'e İstanbul Kuşatmaları, İstanbul: İstanbul Araştırmaları Enstitüsü, ISBN 978-605-4642-67-0
- Baştav, Şerif (1989), Bizans İmparatorluğu Tarihi: Son Devir (1261-1461), Ankara: Türk Kültürünü Araştırma Enstitüsü Yayınları, ISBN 975-456-024-2
- ISBN 978-605-09-0434-5
- ISBN 978-0-297-86849-1
- ISBN 978-9944-88-645-1
- ISBN 978-605-5093-01-3
- ISBN 978-605-5093-02-0
- ISBN 978-975-16-0348-7
- OCLC 832687, retrieved 13 March 2016
- ISBN 978-605-171-265-9
- Yavuz, Mehmet Fatih (2014), Byzantion: Byzas'tan Constantinus'a Antik İstanbul, İstanbul: İstanbul Araştırmaları Enstitüsü, ISBN 978-605-4642-30-4