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Republic of Lebanon | ||
---|---|---|
Speaker of the Parliament Nabih Berri | | |
Legislature | French mandate ended | 24 October 1945 |
• Withdrawal of French forces | 17 April 1946 | |
24 May 2000 | ||
30 April 2005 | ||
Area | ||
• Total | 10,452 km2 (4,036 sq mi) (161st) | |
• Water (%) | 1.8 | |
Population | ||
• 2022 estimate | 5,296,814[7] (122nd) | |
• Density | 560/km2 (1,450.4/sq mi) | |
GDP (PPP) | 2022 estimate | |
• Total | $78.233 billion[8] (108th) | |
• Per capita | $11,793[8] (114th) | |
GDP (nominal) | 2022 estimate | |
• Total | $21.780 billion[8] (103rd) | |
• Per capita | $3,283[8] (133rd) | |
Gini (2011) | 31.8[9] medium | |
HDI (2021) | 0.706[10] high (112th) | |
Currency | Lebanese pound (LBP) | |
Time zone | UTC+2 (EET) | |
• Summer (DST) | UTC+3 (EEST) | |
Driving side | right[11] | |
Calling code | +961[12] | |
ISO 3166 code | LB | |
Internet TLD |
33°50′N 35°50′E / 33.833°N 35.833°E / 33.833; 35.833
Lebanon (
The earliest evidence of human civilization in Lebanon dates back to 5000 BCE.[15] From 3200 to 539 BC, Lebanon was home to Phoenicia, a maritime empire that stretched the Mediterranean Basin.[16] In 64 BC, the Roman Empire conquered the region, and Lebanon soon became a major center for Christianity under the aegis of the Byzantine Empire. In the 7th century, the Muslim conquest of the Levant brought the region under the control of the Rashidun Caliphate. The 11th century saw the beginning of the Crusades and the establishment of Crusader states, though these later fell to the Ayyubids and the Mamluks, who in turn ceded the territory to the Ottoman Turks in the aftermath of the Ottoman–Mamluk War of 1516–1517. Under Ottoman ruler Abdulmejid I, the first Lebanese proto-state was established in the form of the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate, created in the 19th century as a home for Maronite Christians under the Ottoman "Tanzimat" period.
After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire around World War I, the five Ottoman provinces constituting modern-day Lebanon came under the Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon, to be administered by France. Under the Mandate administration, France established Greater Lebanon as the predecessor state to today's independent Lebanon. However, French rule over the region weakened significantly in the aftermath of the German invasion of France in 1940. By 1943, Lebanon had gained independence from Free France and subsequently established a distinct form of confessionalist government, with the state's major religious groups being apportioned specific political powers. The new Lebanese state was relatively stable for a short period after independence,[17] but this was ultimately shattered by the outbreak of large-scale fighting in the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) between various political and sectarian factions. Amidst the internal hostilities of this period, Lebanon was also subjugated by two overlapping military occupations: by Syria from 1976 to 2005 and by Israel from 1985 to 2000. Since the end of the conflict, there have been extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure.[18]
Lebanon is a developing country, ranked 112th on the Human Development Index.[19] It has been classified as an upper-middle-income state.[20] However, the Lebanese liquidity crisis, coupled with nationwide corruption and recent disasters such as the 2020 Beirut explosion, have precipitated the collapse of Lebanon's currency and fomented political instability, widespread resource shortages, and high unemployment and poverty. The World Bank has defined Lebanon's economic crisis as one of the world's worst since the 19th century.[21][22] Despite the country's small size,[23] Lebanese culture is renowned both in the Arab world and globally, powered primarily by the Lebanese diaspora.[24] Lebanon is a founding member of the United Nations and of the Arab League,[25] and is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, and the Group of 77, among others.
Etymology
The name of Mount Lebanon originates from the Phoenician root lbn (𐤋𐤁𐤍) meaning "white", apparently from its snow-capped peaks.[26][27]
Occurrences of the name have been found in different
Lebanon as the name of an administrative unit (as opposed to the mountain range) that was introduced with the
History
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The borders of contemporary Lebanon are a product of the
empires.After the 7th-century Muslim conquest of the Levant, it was part of the Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid and Seljuk empires. The crusader state of the County of Tripoli, founded by Raymond IV of Toulouse in 1102, encompassed most of present-day Lebanon, falling to the Mamluk Sultanate in 1289 and finally to the Ottoman Empire in 1516.[31] With the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, Greater Lebanon fell under French mandate in 1920,[32] and gained independence under president Bechara El Khoury in 1943. Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of relative political stability and prosperity based on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade, interspersed with political turmoil and armed conflict (1948 Arab–Israeli War, Lebanese Civil War 1975–1990, 2005 Cedar Revolution, 2006 Lebanon War, 2007 Lebanon conflict, 2006–08 Lebanese protests, 2008 conflict in Lebanon, 2011 Syrian Civil War spillover, and 2019–20 Lebanese protests).[33]
Antiquity
Evidence dating back to an early settlement in Lebanon was found in Byblos, considered among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.[15] The evidence dates back to earlier than 5000 BC. Archaeologists discovered remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars left by the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago.[39]
Lebanon was part of northern Canaan, and consequently became the homeland of Canaanite descendants, the Phoenicians, a seafaring people based in the coastal strip of the northern Levant who spread across the Mediterranean in the first millennium BC.[40] The most prominent Phoenician cities were Byblos, Sidon and Tyre. According to the Bible, King Hiram of Tyre collaborated closely with Solomon, supplying cedar logs for Solomon's Temple and sending skilled workers.[41] The Phoenicians are credited with the invention of the oldest verified alphabet, which subsequently inspired the Greek alphabet and the Latin one thereafter.[42]
In the 9th century BC,
In 64 BC, the Roman general
, the latter which the land of present-day Lebanon was a part of.The region that is now Lebanon, as with the rest of Syria and much of
Middle Ages
During the 7th century, Muslim Arabs conquered Syria from the Byzantines, incorporating the region, including modern-day Lebanon, under the Islamic Caliphate.[46] In the era of Uthman's caliphate (644–656), Islam gained significant influence in Damascus, led by Mu'awiya, a relative of Uthman, serving as the governor. Mu'awiya sent forces to the coastal region of Lebanon, prompting conversions to Islam among the coastal population. However, the mountainous areas retained their Christian or other cultural practices.[41] Despite Islam and Arabic becoming officially dominant, the population's conversion from Christianity and Syriac language was gradual. The Maronite community, in particular, managed to maintain a large degree of autonomy despite the succession of rulers over Lebanon and Syria. The relative (but not complete) isolation of the Lebanese mountains meant the mountains served as a refuge in the times of religious and political crises in the Levant. As such, the mountains displayed religious diversity and the existence of several well-established sects and religions, notably, Maronites, Druze, Shiite Muslims, Ismailis, Alawites and Jacobites.[citation needed]
After the Islamic conquest, Mediterranean trade declined for three centuries due to conflicts with the Byzantines. The ports of Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Tripoli struggled to recover, sustaining small populations under Umayyad and Abbasid rule. Christians and Jews were often obligated to pay the jizya, or poll tax levied on non-Muslims.[46] During the 980s, the Fatimid Caliphate took control of the Levant, including Mount Lebanon, resulting in the rejuvenation of Mediterranean trade along the Lebanese coast through renewed connections with Byzantium and Italy. This resurgence saw Tripoli and Tyre flourishing well into the 11th century, focusing on exports such as textiles, sugar, and glassware.[46]
During the 11th century, the
Following the fall of Roman
Among the most lasting effects of the Crusades in this region was the contact between the Franks (i.e., the French) and the Maronites. Unlike most other Christian communities in the Eastern Mediterranean, who swore allegiance to Constantinople or other local patriarchs, the Maronites proclaimed allegiance to the Pope in Rome. As such the Franks saw them as Roman Catholic brethren. These initial contacts led to centuries of support for the Maronites from France and Italy, even after the fall of the Crusader states in the region.
Ottoman rule
In 1516, Lebanon became part of the Ottoman Empire, with governance administered indirectly through local emirs.[48] Lebanon's area was organized into provinces: Northern and Southern Mount Lebanon, Tripoli, Baalbek and Beqaa Valley, and Jabal Amil.
In 1590, Druze tribal leader
While the history of Druze-Christian relations in Lebanon has generally been marked by harmony and peaceful coexistence,
The Baalbek and Beqaa Valley and Jabal Amel was ruled intermittently by various Shia feudal families, especially the Al Ali Alsagheer in Jabal Amel that remained in power until 1865 when Ottomans took direct ruling of the region. Youssef Bey Karam,[63] a Lebanese nationalist played an influential role in Lebanon's independence during this era.
Lebanon experienced profound devastation in the First World War when the Ottoman army assumed direct control, disrupting supplies and confiscating animals, ultimately leading to a severe famine.[48] During the war, approximately 100,000 people in Beirut and Mount Lebanon died due to starvation.[64]
French Mandate
Amidst the height of the First World War, the Sykes–Picot Agreement of 1916, a secret pact between Britain and France, delineated Lebanon and its surrounding areas as regions open to potential French influence or control.[48] After the Allies emerged victorious in the war, the Ottoman Empire ultimately collapsed, losing control over the area. Soon after the war, Patriarch Elias Peter Hoayek, representing the Maronite Christians, successfully campaigned for an expanded territory at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, also including areas with significant Muslim and Druze populations in addition to the Christian-dominated Mount Lebanon.[48]
In 1920, King Faisal I proclaimed the Arab Kingdom of Syria's independence and asserted control over Lebanon. However, following a defeat to the French at the Battle of Maysalun, the kingdom was dissolved.[48] Around the same time, at the San Remo Conference, tasked with deciding the fate of former Ottoman territories, it was determined that Syria and Lebanon would fall under French rule; Shortly afterward, the formal division of territories took place in the Treaty of Sèvres, signed a few months later.[48]
On September 1, 1920, Greater Lebanon, or Grand Liban, was officially established under French control as a League of Nations Mandate, following the terms outlined in the proposed Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon. Greater Lebanon united the regions of Mount Lebanon, North Lebanon, South Lebanon, and the Bekaa, with Beirut as its designated capital.[65][48] These specified boundaries later evolved into the present-day configuration of Lebanon. This arrangement was later ratified in July 1922.[48] The Lebanese Republic was officially proclaimed on September 1, 1926, with the adoption of a constitution inspired by the French constitution on May 23 of the same year. While a Lebanese government was established, the country continued to be under French control.[48]
Pressure on German-occupied France
Lebanon gained a measure of independence while France was occupied by Germany.[66] General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.[67]
After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General
Independence from Free France
Following the end of World War II in Europe the French mandate may be said to have been terminated without any formal action on the part of the
Lebanon's unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Maronite Christian, its speaker of the parliament to be a Shia Muslim, its prime minister be Sunni Muslim, and the Deputy Speaker of Parliament and the Deputy Prime Minister be Greek Orthodox.[70]
Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade.[71]
In May 1948, Lebanon supported neighboring Arab countries in a war against Israel. While some irregular forces crossed the border and carried out minor skirmishes against Israel, it was without the support of the Lebanese government, and Lebanese troops did not officially invade.[72] Lebanon agreed to support the forces with covering artillery fire, armored cars, volunteers and logistical support.[73] On 5–6 June 1948, the Lebanese army – led by the then Minister of National Defense, Emir Majid Arslan – captured Al-Malkiyya. This was Lebanon's only success in the war.[74]
100,000 Palestinians fled to Lebanon because of the war. Israel did not permit their return after the cease-fire.[75] As of 2017 between 174,000 and 450,000 Palestinian refugees live in Lebanon with about half in refugee camps (although these are often decades old and resemble neighborhoods).[76] Palestinians often cannot obtain Lebanese citizenship or even Lebanese identity cards and are legally barred from owning property or performing certain occupations (including law, medicine, and engineering).[77] According to Human Rights Watch, Palestinian refugees in Lebanon live in "appalling social and economic conditions."
In 1958, during the last months of President
Until the early 1970s, Lebanon was dubbed "the Switzerland of the Middle East" for its unique status as both a snow-capped holiday destination and secure banking hub for
Lebanese Civil War
In 1975, following increasing sectarian tensions, largely boosted by
Israeli forces withdrew later in 1978, but retained control of the southern region by managing a 19-kilometre-wide (12 mi) security zone along the border. These positions were held by the South Lebanon Army (SLA), a Christian militia under the leadership of Major Saad Haddad backed by Israel. The Israeli Prime Minister, Likud's Menachem Begin, compared the plight of the Christian minority in southern Lebanon (then about 5% of the population in SLA territory) to that of European Jews during World War II.[82] The PLO routinely attacked Israel during the period of the cease-fire, with over 270 documented attacks.[83] People in Galilee regularly had to leave their homes during these shellings. Documents captured in PLO headquarters after the invasion showed they had come from Lebanon.[84] Arafat refused to condemn these attacks on the grounds that the cease-fire was only relevant to Lebanon.[85]
In April 1980 the presence of UNIFIL soldiers in the buffer zone led to the At Tiri incident. On 17 July 1981, Israeli aircraft bombed multi-story apartment buildings in Beirut that contained offices of PLO associated groups. The Lebanese delegate to the United Nations Security Council claimed that 300 civilians had been killed and 800 wounded. The bombing led to worldwide condemnation, and a temporary embargo on the export of U.S. aircraft to Israel.[86] In August 1981, defense minister Ariel Sharon began to draw up plans to attack PLO military infrastructure in West Beirut, where PLO headquarters and command bunkers were located.[87]
In 1982, the PLO attacks from Lebanon on Israel led to an Israeli invasion, aiming to support Lebanese forces in driving out the PLO. A multinational force of American, French and Italian contingents (joined in 1983 by a British contingent) were deployed in Beirut after the Israeli siege of the city, to supervise the evacuation of the PLO. The civil war re-emerged in September 1982 after the assassination of Lebanese President Bachir Gemayel, an Israeli ally, and subsequent fighting. During this time a number of sectarian massacres occurred, such as in Sabra and Shatila, and in several refugee camps.[88] The multinational force was withdrawn in the spring of 1984, following a devastating bombing attack during the previous year.
During the early 1980s, Hezbollah, a Shiite Islamist militant group and political party, came into existence through the efforts of Shiite clerics who were financially supported and trained by Iran. Arising in the aftermath of the 1982 war and drawing inspiration from the Islamic Revolution in Iran, Hezbollah actively engaged in combat against Israel as well as suicide attacks, car bombings and assassinations. Their objectives encompassed eliminating Israel, fighting for the Shia cause in the Lebanese civil war, ending Western presence in Lebanon, and establishing a Shiite Khomeinist Islamic state.[89][46][90]
In the late 1980s, as
In the same month, the Lebanese Parliament agreed to the Taif Agreement, which included an outline timetable for Syrian withdrawal from Lebanon and a formula for the de-confessionalization of the Lebanese political system.[80] The civil war ended at the end of 1990 after 16 years; it had caused massive loss of human life and property and devastated the country's economy. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 wounded.[92] Nearly a million civilians were displaced by the war, and some never returned.[93] Parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.[94] The Taif Agreement has still not been implemented in full and Lebanon's political system continues to be divided along sectarian lines. Conflict between Israel and Lebanese militants continued, leading to a series of violent events and clashes including the Qana massacre.[95][96][97][98] In May 2000, Israeli forces fully withdrew from Lebanon.[99][96][100] Since then, 25 May is regarded by the Lebanese as the Liberation Day.[101][102][96] The internal political situation in Lebanon significantly changed in the early 2000s. After the Israeli withdrawal from southern Lebanon and the death of former president Hafez al-Assad in 2000, the Syrian military presence faced criticism and resistance from the Lebanese population.[103]
Post-war: Cedar Revolution and 2006 War
On 14 February 2005, former Prime Minister
UNSC Resolution 1595 called for an investigation into the assassination.[108] The United Nations International Independent Investigation Commission published preliminary findings on 20 October 2005 in the Mehlis report, which cited indications that the assassination was organized by Syrian and Lebanese intelligence services.[109][110][111][112]
On 12 July 2006, Hezbollah launched a series of rocket attacks and raids into Israeli territory, where they killed three Israeli soldiers and captured two others.[113] Israel responded with airstrikes and artillery fire on targets in Lebanon, and a ground invasion of southern Lebanon, resulting in the 2006 Lebanon War. The conflict was officially ended by the UNSC Resolution 1701 on 14 August 2006, which ordered a ceasefire, the withdrawal of Israeli forces from Lebanon, and the disarmament of Hezbollah.[114][115] Some 1,191 Lebanese[116] and 160 Israelis[117] were killed in the conflict. Beirut's southern suburb was heavily damaged by Israeli airstrikes.[118]
Arab Spring and spillover of the Syrian conflict
The Parliament is elected for a four-year term by popular vote on the basis of sectarian proportional representation.[12] The executive branch consists of the President, the head of state, and the Prime Minister, the head of government. The parliament elects the president for a non-renewable six-year term by a two-thirds majority. The president appoints the Prime Minister,[209] following consultations with the parliament. The president and the prime minister form a cabinet, which must also adhere to the sectarian distribution set out by confessionalism.
In an unprecedented move, the Lebanese parliament has extended its own term twice amid protests, the last being on 5 November 2014,[210] an act which comes in direct contradiction with democracy and article #42 of the Lebanese constitution as no elections have taken place.[6] Lebanon was without a President between May 2014 and October 2016.[211][212] Nationwide elections were finally scheduled for May 2018.[213] As of August 2019, the Lebanese cabinet included two ministers directly affiliated with Hezbollah, in addition to a close but officially non-member minister.[214] The most recent parliamentary elections were held on 15 May 2022.[215]
Law
There are 18 officially recognized religious groups in Lebanon, each with its own family law legislation and set of religious courts.[216] The Lebanese legal system is based on the French system, and is a civil law country, with the exception for matters related to personal status (succession, marriage, divorce, adoption, etc.), which are governed by a separate set of laws designed for each sectarian community. For instance, the Islamic personal status laws are inspired by the Sharia law.[217] For Muslims, these tribunals deal with questions of marriage, divorce, custody, and inheritance and wills. For non-Muslims, personal status jurisdiction is split: the law of inheritance and wills falls under national civil jurisdiction, while Christian and Jewish religious courts are competent for marriage, divorce, and custody. Catholics can additionally appeal before the Vatican Rota court.[218]
The most notable set of codified laws is the Code des Obligations et des Contrats promulgated in 1932 and equivalent to the
In 1990, article 95 was amended to provide that the parliament shall take necessary measures to abolish political structure based on religious affiliation, but that until such time only the highest positions in public civil service, including the judiciary, military, security forces, public and mixed institutions, shall be divided equally between Christians and Muslims without regard to the denominational affiliation within each community.[220]
Foreign relations
Lebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002. It is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. Lebanon also has bilateral trade agreements with several Arab states and is working toward accession to the World Trade Organization.
Lebanon enjoys good relations with virtually all of the other Arab countries (despite historic tensions with Libya and Syria), and hosted an Arab League Summit in March 2002 for the first time in over 35 years. Lebanon is a member of the Francophonie countries and hosted the Francophonie Summit in October 2002 as well as the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009.
Military
The Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) has 72,000 active personnel,[221] including 1,100 in the air force, and 1,000 in the navy.[222] The LAF is considered less powerful and influential than Hezbollah in Lebanon. Hezbollah has 20,000 active fighters and 20,000 in reserves and is supplied with advanced weaponry, including rockets and drones from Iran.[223][224]
The Lebanese Armed Forces' primary missions include defending Lebanon and its citizens against external aggression, maintaining internal stability and security, confronting threats against the country's vital interests, engaging in social development activities, and undertaking relief operations in coordination with public and humanitarian institutions.[225]
Lebanon is a major recipient of foreign military aid.[226] With over $400 million since 2005, it is the second largest per capita recipient of American military aid behind Israel.[227]
LGBT rights
Male homosexuality is illegal in Lebanon.[228] Discrimination against LGBT people in Lebanon is widespread.[229][230] According to 2019 survey by the Pew Research Center, 85% of Lebanese respondents believe that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.[231]
A gender and sexuality conference, held annually in Lebanon, since 2013, was moved abroad in 2019 after a religious group on Facebook called for the organizers' arrest and the cancellation of the conference for "inciting immorality." General Security Forces shut down the 2018 conference and indefinitely denied non-Lebanese LGBT activists who attended the conference permission to re-enter the country.[232]
Administrative divisions
Lebanon is divided into nine
Danniyeh
- Beirut Governorate
- Beirut Governorate comprises the city of Beirut and is not divided into districts.
- Akkar Governorate
- Baalbek-Hermel Governorate
- Beqaa Governorate
- Rashaya
- Western Beqaa (al-Beqaa al-Gharbi)
- Zahle
- Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate
- Mount Lebanon Governorate (Jabal Lubnan/Jabal Lebnen)
- Nabatieh Governorate (Jabal Amel)
- North Governorate (ash-Shamal/shmel)
- South Governorate (al-Janoub/Jnub)
Economy
Lebanon is now suffering the worst economic crisis in decades.[151][152] As of 2023, the GDP has shrunk by 40% since 2018, and the currency has experienced a significant depreciation of 95%.[236] The annual inflation rate exceeds 200%, rendering the minimum wage equivalent to approximately $1 per day.[237] This was the first time Lebanon had devalued its official exchange rate in 25 years.[169] According to the United Nations, three out of every four Lebanese individuals fall below the poverty line.[237] The crisis stems from a long-term Ponzi scheme by the Central Bank of Lebanon, borrowing dollars at high interest rates to sustain deficits and maintain a currency peg. By 2019, insufficient new deposits led to an unsustainable situation, resulting in weeks-long bank closures, arbitrary capital controls, and ultimately, the country's default in 2020.[238]
Throughout the Ottoman and French mandatory periods and into the 1960s, Lebanon experienced prosperity, serving as a hub for banking, financial services, and a key distribution center for the Middle East. The local economy thrived with a foundation in industries related to food processing, clothing, jewelry, and carpets. This prosperity was later marred by four decades of conflict.[200] Following the end of the civil war, Lebanon has developed a service-based economy centered around finance, real estate, and tourism.[239] Nearly 65% of the Lebanese workforce attain employment in the services sector.[240] The GDP contribution, accordingly, amounts to roughly 67.3% of the annual Lebanese GDP.[17] However, dependence on the tourism and banking sectors leaves the economy vulnerable to political instability.[18]
The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise.[241] Emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world.[242] In 2008, Remittances from Lebanese abroad totalled $8.2 billion[243] and account for one-fifth of the country's economy.[244] In 2005, Lebanon had the largest proportion of skilled labor among Arab States.[245]
Agriculture
The agricultural sector in Lebanon employs 20-25% of the total workforce,[246] and contributed 3.1% to the country's GDP,[247] as of 2020. Lebanon has the highest proportion of cultivable land in the Arab world.[248] Major crops include apples, peaches, oranges, and lemons.[17] A significant portion of the country's factories, approximately one-third, is dedicated to producing packaged food items, ranging from poultry to pickles.[246] However, despite favorable conditions for farming and diverse microclimates, the country depends on food imports, constituting 80% of its consumption. This is mainly attributed to the small scale of many farms, preventing the benefits of economies of scale.[246] The ongoing economic crisis and devaluation of the Lebanese pound have also negatively impacted the agricultural sector, particularly through elevated costs for essential imports such as seeds and fertilizers. This economic strain compounds existing burdens for farmers, including escalating debts and inefficient agricultural practices. Consequently, farmers are observing a decline in revenues and encountering difficulties in meeting loan repayment obligations.[246][249]
The commodities market in Lebanon includes substantial gold coin production, however according to International Air Transport Association (IATA) standards, they must be declared upon exportation to any foreign country.[250]
Manufacturing and Industry
Industry in Lebanon is mainly limited to small businesses that reassemble and package imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population,[240] and second in GDP contribution, with 21% of Lebanon's GDP.[17]
Oil has recently been discovered inland and in the seabed between Lebanon, Cyprus, Israel and Egypt and talks are underway between Cyprus and Egypt to reach an agreement regarding the exploration of these resources. The seabed separating Lebanon and Cyprus is believed to hold significant quantities of crude oil and natural gas.[251] On 10 May 2013, the Lebanese minister of energy and water clarified that seismic images of the Lebanese sea bed are undergoing detailed explanation of their contents and that up till now, approximately 10% have been covered. Preliminary inspection of the results showed, with over 50% probability, that 10% of Lebanon's exclusive economic zone held up to 660 million barrels of oil and up to 30×1012 cu ft of gas.[252]
Lebanon has a significant drug industry, including both production and trade. Western intelligence estimate an annual production of over 4 million pounds of hashish and 20,000 pounds of heroin, generating profits exceeding $4 billion. In recent decades, Hezbollah has intensified its engagement in the drug economy, with narcotics serving as a significant revenue stream for the group. Despite some of the harvest being retained for local use, a significant amount is smuggled worldwide. Despite ongoing efforts, the government's inability to control the drug-producing Beqaa Valley and address illicit Captagon factories allows for the persistent occurrence of drug trades, impacting Lebanon's economy and regional stability.[253][254][255]
Development
In the 1950s, GDP growth was the second highest in the world. Despite having no oil reserves, Lebanon, as the Arab world's banking center[256] and among its trading center, had a high national income.[257]
The 1975–1990 civil war heavily damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure,[222] cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a West Asian entrepôt and banking hub.[12] The subsequent period of relative peace enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange.[258]
Until July 2006, Lebanon enjoyed considerable stability, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete,[259] and increasing numbers of tourists poured into the nation's resorts.[260] The economy witnessed growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion US dollars,[261] Market capitalization was also at an all-time high, estimated at $10.9 billion at the end of the second quarter of 2006.[261] The month-long 2006 war severely damaged Lebanon's fragile economy, especially the tourism sector. According to a preliminary report published by the Lebanese Ministry of Finance on 30 August 2006, a major economic decline was expected as a result of the fighting.[262]
Over the course of 2008 Lebanon rebuilt its infrastructure mainly in the real estate and tourism sectors, resulting in a comparatively robust post war economy. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with US$1.5 billion pledged),[263] the European Union (with about $1 billion)[264] and a few other Persian Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million.[265]
Tourism
In 2011, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and Japan were the three most popular origin countries of foreign tourists to Lebanon.[271] In summer, a considerable number of visitors to Lebanon consists of Lebanese expatriates coming to visit their hometowns.[238] In 2012, it was reported that an influx of Japanese tourists had caused a rise in popularity of Japanese cuisine in Lebanon.[272]
Infrastructure
Education
According to surveys from the World Economic Forum's 2013 Global Information Technology Report, Lebanon has been ranked globally as the fourth best country for math and science education, and as the tenth best overall for quality of education. In quality of management schools, the country was ranked 13th worldwide.[273]
The United Nations assigned Lebanon an education index of 0.871 in 2008. The index, which is determined by the adult literacy rate and the combined primary, secondary, and tertiary gross enrollment ratio, ranked the country 88th out of the 177 countries participating.
Lebanon has forty-one nationally accredited universities, several of which are internationally recognized.
Universities in Lebanon, both public and private, largely operate in French or English.
Health
In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 7.03% of the country's GDP. In 2009, there were 31.29 physicians and 19.71 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.[287] The life expectancy at birth was 72.59 years in 2011, or 70.48 years for males and 74.80 years for females.[288] By the end of the civil war, only one-third of the country's public hospitals were operational, each with an average of 20 beds. By 2009, the country had 28 public hospitals, with a total of 2,550 beds.[289] At public hospitals, hospitalized uninsured patients pay 5% of the bill, in comparison with 15% in private hospitals, with the Ministry of Public Health reimbursing the remainder.[289] The Ministry of Public Health contracts with 138 private hospitals and 25 public hospitals.[290]
In 2011, there were 236,643 subsidized admissions to hospitals; 164,244 in private hospitals, and 72,399 in public hospitals. More patients visit private hospitals than public hospitals, because the private beds supply is higher.[290] According to the Ministry of Public Health in Lebanon, the top 10 leading causes of reported hospital deaths in 2017 were: malignant neoplasm of bronchus or lung (4.6%), Acute myocardial infarction (3%), pneumonia (2.2%), exposure to unspecified factor, unspecified place (2.1%), acute kidney injury (1.4%), intra-cerebral hemorrhage (1.2%), malignant neoplasm of colon (1.2%), malignant neoplasm of pancreas (1.1%), malignant neoplasm of prostate (1.1%), malignant neoplasm of bladder (0.8%).[291]
Recently, there has been an increase in foodborne illnesses in Lebanon. This has raised public awareness on the importance of food safety, including in the realms of food storage, preservation, and preparation. More restaurants are seeking information and compliance with International Organization for Standardization.[292]
Demographics
The population of Lebanon was estimated to be 5,592,631 in 2021, with the number of
The
Lebanon has witnessed a series of migration waves: over 1,800,000 people emigrated from the country in the 1975–2011 period.
As of 2012[update], Lebanon was host to over 1,600,000 refugees and asylum seekers: 449,957 from Palestine,[12] 100,000 from Iraq,[310] over 1,100,000 from Syria,[12][311] and at least 4,000 from Sudan.[312] According to the Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia of the United Nations, among the Syrian refugees, 71% live in poverty.[313] A 2013 estimate by the United Nations put the number of Syrian refugees at over 1,250,000.[131]
In the last three decades, lengthy and destructive
Largest cities or towns in Lebanon
Source? | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rank | Name
|
Governorate | Pop. | Rank | Name
|
Governorate | Pop. | ||
Beirut Tripoli |
1 | Beirut | Beirut | 1,916,100 | 11 | Nabatieh | Nabatieh | 50,000 | Jounieh Zahlé |
2 | Tripoli | North | 1,150,000 | 12 | Zgharta | North | 45,000 | ||
3 | Jounieh | Mount Lebanon | 450,000 | 13 | Bint Jbeil | Nabatieh | 30,000 | ||
4 | Zahlé | Beqaa | 130,000 | 14 | Bsharri | North | 25,000 | ||
5 | Sidon | South | 110,000 | 15 | Baakleen | Mount Lebanon | 20,000 | ||
6 | Aley | Mount Lebanon | 100,000 | ||||||
7 | Tyre | South | 85,000 | ||||||
8 | Byblos | Mount Lebanon | 80,000 | ||||||
9 | Baalbek | Baalbek-Hermel | 70,000 | ||||||
10 | Batroun | North Governorate | 55,000 |
Religion
It is believed that there has been a decline in the ratio of Christians to Muslims over the past 60 years, due to higher emigration rates of Christians, and a higher birth rate in the Muslim population.[317] When the last census was held in 1932, Christians made up 53% of Lebanon's population.[298] In 1956, it was estimated that the population was 54% Christian and 44% Muslim.[298]
A demographic study conducted by the research firm Statistics Lebanon found that approximately 27% of the population was
The
Language
Article 11 of Lebanon's Constitution states that "Arabic is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the
There is also significant presence of French, and of English. Almost 40% of Lebanese are considered francophone, and another 15% "partial francophone", and 70% of Lebanon's secondary schools use French as a second language of instruction.[331] By comparison, English is used as a secondary language in 30% of Lebanon's secondary schools.[331] The use of French is a legacy of France's historic ties to the region, including its League of Nations mandate over Lebanon following World War I; as of 2005[update], some 20% of the population used French on a daily basis.[332] The use of Arabic by Lebanon's educated youth is declining, as they usually prefer to speak in French and, to a lesser extent, English, which are seen as more fashionable.[333][334]
English is increasingly used in science and business interactions.[335][336] Lebanese citizens of Armenian, Greek, or Assyrian descent often speak their ancestral languages with varying degrees of fluency. As of 2009[update], there were around 150,000 Armenians in Lebanon, or around 5% of the population.[337]
Culture
The culture of Lebanon reflects the legacy of various civilizations spanning thousands of years. Originally home to the
Arts
In visual arts, Moustafa Farroukh was among Lebanon's most prominent painters of the 20th century. Formally trained in Rome and Paris, he exhibited in venues from Paris to New York to Beirut over his career.[339] Many more contemporary artists are active, such as Walid Raad, a contemporary media artist residing in New York.[340] In the field of photography, the Arab Image Foundation has a collection of over 400,000 photographs from Lebanon and the Middle East. The photographs can be viewed in a research center and various events and publications have been produced in Lebanon and worldwide to promote the collection.
Literature
In literature, Kahlil Gibran is the third best-selling poet of all time, behind Shakespeare and Laozi.[341] He is particularly known for his book The Prophet (1923), which has been translated into over twenty different languages.[342] Ameen Rihani was a major figure in the mahjar literary movement developed by Arab emigrants in North America, and an early theorist of Arab nationalism. Mikhail Naimy is widely recognized as among the most important figures in modern Arabic letters and among the most important spiritual writers of the 20th century. Several contemporary Lebanese writers have also achieved international success; including Elias Khoury, Amin Maalouf, Hanan al-Shaykh, and Georges Schéhadé.
Music
Media and cinema
The
Holidays and festivals
Cuisine
Lebanese cuisine is similar to those of many countries in the
Sports
Lebanon has six ski resorts. Because of Lebanon's unique geography, it is possible to go skiing in the morning and swimming in the Mediterranean Sea in the afternoon.[356] At the competitive level, basketball and football are among Lebanon's most popular sports. Canoeing, cycling, rafting, climbing, swimming, sailing and caving are among the other common leisure sports in Lebanon. The Beirut Marathon is held every fall, drawing top runners from Lebanon and abroad.[357]
Science and technology
Lebanon was ranked 92nd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, down from 88th in 2019.[373][374][375] Notable scientists from Lebanon include Hassan Kamel Al-Sabbah, Rammal Rammal, and Edgar Choueiri.[376][377][378]
In 1960, a science club from a university in Beirut started a Lebanese space program called "
See also
Notes
- ^ Article 11 of the Constitution of Lebanon states: "Arabic is the official national language. A law shall determine the cases in which the French language can be used." See French language in Lebanon.
- but from a statistical perspective are often counted as such.
- Arabic: الجمهورية اللبنانية, romanized: al-Jumhūriyya al-Lubnāniyya
- but from a statistical perspective are often counted as such.
- Antoine Ghanim, MP.
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Works cited
- Coogan, Michael D.; Smith, Mark S. (15 March 2012). Stories from Ancient Canaan, Second Edition. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-23242-9.
- Morris, Benny (April 2008). 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12696-9.
General references
- Arkadiusz, Plonka. L’idée de langue libanaise d’après Sa‘īd ‘Aql, Paris, Geuthner, 2004 (French) ISBN 2-7053-3739-3
- Firzli, Nicola Y. Al-Baath wa-Lubnân [Arabic only] ("The Baath and Lebanon"). Beirut: Dar-al-Tali'a Books, 1973
- Fisk, Robert. Pity the Nation: The Abduction of Lebanon. New York: Nation Books, 2002.
- ISBN 0-436-18130-4
- Gorton, TJ and Feghali Gorton, AG. Lebanon: through Writers' Eyes. London: Eland Books, 2009.
- ISBN 1-931956-61-8)
- Norton, Augustus R. Amal and the Shi'a: Struggle for the Soul of Lebanon. Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1987.
- Sobelman, Daniel. New Rules of the Game: Israel and Hizbollah After the Withdrawal From Lebanon, Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies, Tel-Aviv University, 2004.
- Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
- Salibi, Kamal. A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
- Schlicht, Alfred. The role of Foreign Powers in the History of Syria and Lebanon 1799–1861 in: Journal of Asian History 14 (1982)
- Georges Corm, Le Liban contemporain. Histoire et société (La découverte, 2003 et 2005)
External links
- Definitions from Wiktionary
- Media from Commons
- News from Wikinews
- Quotations from Wikiquote
- Texts from Wikisource
- Textbooks from Wikibooks
- Resources from Wikiversity
- Travel information from Wikivoyage
- Official Government of Lebanon information site (archived 11 April 2011)
- Lebanon. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Lebanon web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
- Lebanon profiles of people and institutions provided by the Arab Decision project
- Lebanon at Curlie
- Wikimedia Atlas of Lebanon
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