Lithuanian language
Lithuanian | |
---|---|
lietuvių kalba | |
Pronunciation | [lʲɪɛˈtʊvʲuː kɐɫˈbɐ] |
Native to | Lithuania |
Region | Baltic |
Ethnicity | Lithuanians |
Native speakers | 3.0 million (2012)[1] |
Indo-European
| |
Early forms | Proto-Indo-European
|
Dialects |
|
Lithuanian alphabet) Lithuanian Braille | |
Official status | |
Official language in | Lithuania European Union |
Recognised minority language in | |
Regulated by | Commission of the Lithuanian Language |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-1 | lt |
ISO 639-2 | lit |
ISO 639-3 | Either:lit – Modern Lithuanianolt – Old Lithuanian |
Glottolog | lith1251 |
Linguasphere | 54-AAA-a |
Map of areas where Lithuanian is spoken as a majority language (marked in dark blue) and minority language (marked in light blue) | |
Lithuanian (
Lithuanian is closely related to neighbouring
History
Anyone wishing to hear how
Indo-Europeansspoke should come and listen to a Lithuanian peasant.
Among
According to
The differentiation between Lithuanian and Latvian started after 800; for a long period, they could be considered dialects of a single language.
Lithuanian was studied by several linguists such as Franz Bopp, August Schleicher, Adalbert Bezzenberger, Louis Hjelmslev,[16] Ferdinand de Saussure,[17] Winfred P. Lehmann and Vladimir Toporov,[18] Jan Safarewicz,[19] and others.
By studying place names of Lithuanian origin, linguist Jan Safarewicz concluded that the eastern boundaries of Lithuanian used to be in the shape of zigzags through Grodno, Shchuchyn, Lida, Valozhyn, Svir, and Braslaw.[8] Such eastern boundaries partly coincide with the spread of Catholic and Orthodox faith, and should have existed at the time of the Christianization of Lithuania in 1387 and later.[8] Safarewicz's eastern boundaries were moved even further to the south and east by other scholars (e.g. Mikalay Biryla , Petras Gaučas, Jerzy Ochmański , Aleksandras Vanagas, Zigmas Zinkevičius, and others).[8]
Initially, Lithuanian was a spoken language in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Duchy of Prussia, while the beginning of Lithuanian writing is possibly associated with the introduction of Christianity in Lithuania when Mindaugas was baptized and crowned King of Lithuania in 1250–1251.[20][8] It is believed that prayers were translated into the local dialect of Lithuanian by Franciscan monks during the baptism of Mindaugas, however none of the writings has survived.[20]
Although no writings in Lithuanian have survived from the 15th century or earlier,
Initially,
The use of Lithuanian continued at the Lithuanian
The earliest surviving written Lithuanian text is a translation dating from about 1503–1525 of the Lord's Prayer, the Hail Mary, and the Nicene Creed written in the Southern Aukštaitian dialect.[20] On 8 January 1547 the first Lithuanian book was printed – the Catechism of Martynas Mažvydas.[20]
At the royal court in Vilnius of Sigismund II Augustus, the last Grand Duke of Lithuania prior to the Union of Lublin, both Polish and Lithuanian were spoken equally widely.[28] In 1552 Sigismund II Augustus ordered that orders of the Magistrate of Vilnius be announced in Lithuanian, Polish, and Ruthenian.[40] The same requirement was valid for the Magistrate of Kaunas.[41][42]
In the 16th century, following the decline of Ruthenian usage in favor of Polish in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Lithuanian language strengthened its positions in Lithuania due to reforms in religious matters and judicial reforms which allowed lower levels of the Lithuanian nobility to participate in the social-political life of the state.[35] In 1599, Mikalojus Daukša published his Postil and in its prefaces he expressed that the Lithuanian language situation had improved and thanked to bishop Merkelis Giedraitis for his works.[35]
In 1776–1790 about 1,000 copies of the first Catholic primer in Lithuanian – Mokslas skaitymo rašto lietuviško – were issued annually, and it continued to be published until 1864. Over 15,000 copies appeared in total.[43][44][45]
In 1864, following the
Jonas Jablonskis (1860–1930) made significant contributions to the formation of standard Lithuanian.[56] The conventions of written Lithuanian had been evolving during the 19th century, but Jablonskis, in the introduction to his Lietuviškos kalbos gramatika, was the first to formulate and expound the essential principles that were so indispensable to its later development.[56][57] His proposal for Standard Lithuanian was based on his native Western Aukštaitian dialect with some features of the eastern Prussian Lithuanians' dialect spoken in Lithuania Minor.[56][57] These dialects[clarification needed] had preserved archaic phonetics mostly intact due to the influence of the neighbouring Old Prussian, while other dialects had experienced different phonetic shifts.
Lithuanian became the official language of the country following the restoration of Lithuania's statehood in 1918. The 1922 Constitution of Lithuania (the first permanent Lithuanian constitution) recognized it as the sole official language of the state and mandated its use throughout the state.[58][59] The improvement of education system during the interwar period resulted in 92% of literacy rate of the population in Lithuania in 1939 (mostly only part of the older age inhabitants were still illiterate).[49]
Following the Żeligowski's Mutiny in 1920, Vilnius Region was detached from Lithuania and was eventually annexed by Poland in 1922. This resulted in repressions of Lithuanians and mass-closure of Lithuanian language schools in the Vilnius Region, especially when Vilnius Voivode Ludwik Bociański issued a secret memorandum of 11 February 1936 which stated the measures for suppressing the Lithuanians in the region.[60][61][62][63] Some Lithuanian historians, like Antanas Tyla and Ereminas Gintautas, consider these Polish policies as amounting to an "ethnocide of Lithuanians".[60][61]
Between 1862 and 1944, the Lithuanian schools were completely banned in Lithuania Minor and the language was almost completely eliminated there.[57] The Baltic-origin place names retained their basis for centuries in Prussia but were Germanized (e.g. Tilžė – Tilsit, Labguva – Labiau, Vėluva – Wehliau, etc.); however, after the annexation of the Königsberg region into the Russian SFSR, they were changed completely, regardless of previous tradition (e.g. Tilsit – Sovetsk, Labiau – Polesk, Wehliau – Znamensk, etc.).[64]
The Soviet occupation of Lithuania in 1940, German occupation of Lithuania in 1941, and eventually the Soviet re-occupation of Lithuania in 1944, led to the conversion of the independent Republic of Lithuania into the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic within the Soviet Union.[57] The Soviet authorities introduced Lithuanian–Russian bilingualism.[57] However, Russian, as the de facto official language of the USSR, took precedence over Lithuanian and the use of Lithuanian was reduced; the population and language were thus subject to Russification.[65][57] Moreover, many Russian-speaking workers, specialists and higher education lecturers migrated to the Lithuanian SSR (fueled by the industrialization in the Soviet Union).[66] Russian consequently came into use in state institutions, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Lithuania (in 1948, there were 22,000 Communist Party members in the Lithuanian SSR, 80% of whom were Russians), radio and television (61–74% of broadcasts in the Lithuanian SSR were in Russian in 1970).[66] Lithuanians passively resisted Russification by avoiding the use of Russian.[67]
On 18 November 1988, the Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR restored Lithuanian as the official language of Lithuania due to pressure from the pro-independence movement Sąjūdis and Lithuanian society.[58]
On 11 March 1990, the
Classification
Lithuanian is one of two living Baltic languages, along with Latvian, and they constitute the eastern branch of Baltic languages family.[69] An earlier Baltic language, Old Prussian, was extinct by the 18th century; the other Western Baltic languages, Curonian and Sudovian, became extinct earlier. Some theories, such as that of Jānis Endzelīns, considered that the Baltic languages form their own distinct branch of the family of Indo-European languages, and Endzelīns thought that the similarity between Baltic and Slavic was explicable through language contact.[70] There is also an opinion that suggests the union of Baltic and Slavic languages into a distinct sub-family of Balto-Slavic languages amongst the Indo-European family of languages. Such an opinion was first represented by August Schleicher.[71] Some supporters of the Baltic and Slavic languages unity even claim that Proto-Baltic branch did not exist, suggesting that Proto-Balto-Slavic split into three language groups: East Baltic, West Baltic and Proto-Slavic.[72][73][74][75] Antoine Meillet and Jan Baudouin de Courtenay, on the contrary, believed that the similarity between the Slavic and Baltic languages was caused by independent parallel development, and the Proto-Balto-Slavic language did not exist.[76]
An attempt to reconcile the opposing stances was made by Jan Michał Rozwadowski.[71] He proposed that the two language groups were indeed a unity after the division of Indo-European, but also suggested that after the two had divided into separate entities (Baltic and Slavic), they had posterior contact.[71] The genetic kinship view is augmented by the fact that Proto-Balto-Slavic is easily reconstructible with important proofs in historic prosody. The alleged (or certain, as certain as historical linguistics can be) similarities due to contact are seen in such phenomena as the existence of definite adjectives formed by the addition of an inflected pronoun (descended from the same Proto-Indo-European pronoun), which exist in both Baltic and Slavic yet nowhere else in the Indo-European family (languages such as Albanian and the Germanic languages developed definite adjectives independently), and that is not reconstructible for Proto-Balto-Slavic, meaning that they most probably developed through language contact.[77]
The Baltic
So, there are at least six points of view on the relationships between the Baltic and Slavic. However, with regard to the hypotheses associated with the "Balto-Slavic problem", their certain distance from the comparative method and their focus, rather, on personal theoretical constructions, is noted.[84]
Geographic distribution
Lithuanian is spoken mainly in Lithuania. It is also spoken by ethnic Lithuanians living in today's Belarus, Latvia, Poland, and the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia, as well as by sizable emigrant communities in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, the United Kingdom, the United States, Uruguay, and Spain.[85]
2,955,200 people in Lithuania (including 3,460 Tatars), or about 86% of the 2015 population, are native Lithuanian speakers; most Lithuanian inhabitants of other nationalities also speak Lithuanian to some extent. The total worldwide Lithuanian-speaking population is about 3,200,000.
Official status
Lithuanian is the
Dialects
In the
Due to the
As a result of a decrease in the usage of spoken Lithuanian in the eastern part of Lithuania proper, in the 19th century, it was suggested to create a standardized Lithuanian based on the Samogitian dialect.[57] Nevertheless, it was not accomplished because everyone offered their Samogitian subdialects and the Eastern and Western Aukštaitians offered their Aukštaitian subdialects.[57]
In the second half of the 19th century, when the Lithuanian National Revival intensified, and the preparations to publish a Lithuanian periodical press were taking place, the mostly south-western Aukštaitian revival writers did not use the 19th-century Lithuanian of Lithuania Minor as it was largely Germanized.[57] Instead, they used a more pure Lithuanian language which has been described by August Schleicher and Friedrich Kurschat and this way the written language of Lithuania Minor was transferred to resurgent Lithuania.[57] The most famous standardizer of the Lithuanian, Jonas Jablonskis, established the south-western Aukštaitian dialect, including the Eastern dialect of Lithuania Minor, as the basis of standardized Lithuanian in the 20th century, which led to him being nicknamed the father of standardized Lithuanian.[57][56]
According to Polish professor Jan Otrębski's article published in 1931, the Polish dialect in the Vilnius Region and in the northeastern areas in general are very interesting variant of Polishness as this dialect developed in a foreign territory which was mostly inhabited by the Lithuanians who were Belarusized (mostly) or Polonized, and to prove this Otrębski provided examples of Lithuanianisms in the Tutejszy language.[91][92] In 2015, Polish linguist Mirosław Jankowiak attested that many of the Vilnius Region's inhabitants who declare Polish nationality speak a Belarusian dialect which they call mowa prosta ('simple speech').[93]
Currently, Lithuanian is divided into two dialects:
Dialects are divided into subdialects. Both dialects have three subdialects. Samogitian is divided into West, North and South; Aukštaitian into West (Suvalkiečiai),
Script
Lithuanian uses the Latin script supplemented with diacritics. It has 32 letters. In the collation order, y follows immediately after į (called i nosinė), because both y and į represent the same long vowel [iː]:[100]
Majuscule forms (also called uppercase or capital letters)
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | Ą | B | C | Č | D | E | Ę | Ė | F | G | H | I | Į | Y | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | R | S | Š | T | U | Ų | Ū | V | Z | Ž |
Minuscule forms (also called lowercase or small letters)
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a | ą | b | c | č | d | e | ę | ė | f | g | h | i | į | y | j | k | l | m | n | o | p | r | s | š | t | u | ų | ū | v | z | ž |
In addition, the following digraphs are used, but are treated as sequences of two letters for collation purposes. The digraph ch represents a single sound, the velar fricative [x], while dz and dž are pronounced like straightforward combinations of their component letters (sounds):
Dz dz [dz] (dzė), Dž dž [dʒ] (džė), Ch ch [x] (cha).
The distinctive Lithuanian letter Ė was used for the first time in the Daniel Klein's Grammatica Litvanica and firmly established itself in Lithuanian since then.[101][102][103][104] However, linguist August Schleicher used Ë (with two points above it) instead of Ė for expressing the same.[105] In the Grammatica Litvanica Klein also established the letter W for marking the sound [v], the use of which was later abolished in Lithuanian (it was replaced with V, notably by authors of the Varpas newspaper).[101][105][106] The usage of V instead of W especially increased since the early 20th century, likely considerably influenced by Lithuanian press and schools.[106]
The Lithuanian writing system is largely phonemic, i.e., one letter usually corresponds to a single
Due to
The Lithuanians also adopted the letter ž from the Czechs.[103]
The
A
Phonology
Consonants
Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
hard | soft | hard | soft | hard | soft | hard | soft | |||
Nasal | m | mʲ | n |
nʲ | ||||||
Stop
|
voiceless | p | pʲ | t |
tʲ | k | kʲ | |||
voiced | b | bʲ | d |
dʲ | ɡ | ɡʲ | ||||
Affricate
|
voiceless | t͡s |
t͡sʲ | t͡ʃ | t͡ɕ | |||||
voiced | d͡z |
d͡zʲ | d͡ʒ | d͡ʑ | ||||||
Fricative
|
voiceless | (f) | (fʲ) | s |
sʲ | ʃ | ɕ | (x) | (xʲ) | |
voiced | v | vʲ | z |
zʲ | ʒ | ʑ | j | (ɣ) | (ɣʲ) | |
Approximant
|
ɫ
|
lʲ
|
||||||||
Trill | r |
rʲ |
All Lithuanian consonants except /j/ have two variants: one non-palatalized and one palatalized, for example, /b/ – /bʲ/, /d/ – /dʲ/, /ɡ/ – /ɡʲ/ (see the chart above for the full consonant set, represented by IPA symbols). The consonants /f/, /x/, /ɣ/ and their palatalized counterparts are only found in loanwords.
/t͡ɕ, d͡ʑ, ɕ, ʑ/ have been traditionally transcribed with ⟨t͡ʃʲ, d͡ʒʲ, ʃʲ, ʒʲ⟩, but they can be seen as equivalent transcriptions, with the former set being somewhat easier to write.[112]
Vowels
Lithuanian has six long vowels and four short ones (not including disputed phonemes marked in brackets). Length has traditionally been considered the distinctive feature, though short vowels are also more centralized and long vowels more peripheral:
Front | Central | Back | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Close | iː | ɪ | ʊ | uː | ||
Mid | eː | ɛ, (e) | (ɔ) | oː | ||
Open | æː | ɐ | aː |
- /e, ɔ/ are restricted to loanwords. Many speakers merge the former with /ɛ/.[113]
Diphthongs
Lithuanian is traditionally described as having nine diphthongs, ai, au, ei, eu, oi, ou, ui, ie, and uo. However, some approaches (i.e., Schmalstieg 1982) treat them as vowel sequences rather than diphthongs; indeed, the longer component depends on the type of stress, whereas in diphthongs, the longer segment is fixed.
stressless or tilde |
acute stress | |
---|---|---|
ai | [ɐɪ̯ˑ] | [âˑɪ̯] |
ei | [ɛɪ̯ˑ] | [æ̂ˑɪ̯] |
au | [ɒʊ̯ˑ] | [âˑʊ̯] |
eu | [ɛʊ̯ˑ] | [ɛ̂ʊ̯] |
iau | [ɛʊ̯ˑ] | [ɛ̂ˑʊ̯] |
ie | [iə] | [îə][114] |
oi | — | [ɔ̂ɪ̯] |
ou | — | [ɔ̂ʊ̯] |
ui | [ʊɪ̯ˑ] | [ʊ̂ɪ̯] |
uo | [uə] | [ûə][114] |
Pitch accent
The Lithuanian prosodic system is characterized by free accent and distinctive quantity (i.e.
Grammar
The first prescriptive printed
In one of the first Lithuanian grammars – Compendium Grammaticae Lithvanicae, published in 1673, most of the given examples are with Lithuanian endings (e.g. names Jonas = Jonas, Jonuttis = Jonutis, etc.), therefore it allows to highlight the tendency of spelling the endings of words in the Old Lithuanian writings.[122]
The Universitas lingvarum Litvaniae, published in Vilnius in 1737, is the oldest surviving grammar of Lithuanian published in the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[123][124]
The first scientific Compendium of Lithuanian was published in German in 1856/57 by August Schleicher, a professor at Charles University in Prague.[125][126] In it he describes Prussian-Lithuanian, which later became the "skeleton" (Būga) of modern Lithuanian. Schleicher asserted that Lithuanian can compete with the Greek and Roman (Old Latin) languages in perfection of forms.[127]
Lithuanian is a highly
There are twelve noun and five adjective declensions and one (masculine and feminine) participle declension.[128]
Nouns and other parts of nominal morphology are declined in seven
Lithuanian verbal morphology shows a number of innovations; namely, the loss of synthetic passive (which is hypothesized based on other archaic Indo-European languages, such as Greek and Latin),
On the other hand, Lithuanian verbal morphology retains a number of archaic features absent from most modern Indo-European languages (but shared with Latvian). This includes the synthetic form of the future tense with the help of the -s- suffix and three principal verbal forms with the present tense stem employing the -n- and -st- infixes.
There are three verbal conjugations. The verb būti is the only auxiliary verb in the language. Together with participles, it is used to form dozens of compound forms.
In the active voice, each verb can be inflected for any of the following moods:
- Indicative
- Indirect
- Imperative
- Conditional/subjunctive
In the
- simple: past iterative (nešdavau) and future(nešiu)
- compound:
- present perfect (esu nešęs), past perfect (buvau nešęs), past iterative perfect (būdavau nešęs), future perfect (būsiu nešęs)
- past inchoative (buvau benešąs), past iterative inchoative (būdavau benešąs), future inchoative (būsiu benešąs)
The indirect mood, used only in written narrative speech, has the same tenses corresponding to the appropriate active participle in nominative case; e.g., the past of the indirect mood would be nešęs, while the past iterative inchoative of the indirect mood would be būdavęs benešąs. Since it is a nominal form, this mood cannot be conjugated but must match the subject's number and gender.
The subjunctive (or conditional) and the imperative moods have three tenses. Subjunctive: present (neščiau), past (būčiau nešęs), inchoative (būčiau benešąs); imperative: present (nešk), perfect (būk nešęs) and inchoative (būk benešąs).
The infinitive has only one form (nešti). These forms, except the infinitive and indirect mood, are conjugative, having two singular, two plural persons, and the third person form common both for plural and singular.
In the passive voice, the form number is not as rich as in the active voice. There are two types of passive voice in Lithuanian: present participle (type I) and past participle (type II) (in the examples below types I and II are separated with a slash). They both have the same moods and tenses:
- Indicative mood: past iterative (būdavau nešamas/neštas) and future(būsiu nešamas/neštas)
- Indirect mood: past iterative (būdavęs nešamas/neštas) and future(būsiąs nešamas/neštas).
- Imperative mood: present (type I only: būk nešamas), past (type II only: būk neštas).
- Subjunctive / conditional mood: present (type I only: būčiau nešamas), past (type II only: būčiau neštas).
Lithuanian has the richest participle system of all Indo-European languages, having participles derived from all simple tenses with distinct active and passive forms, and two gerund forms.
In practical terms, the rich overall inflectional system makes the word order have a different meaning than in more analytic languages such as English. The English phrase "a car is coming" translates as "atvažiuoja automobilis" (the theme first), while "the car is coming" – "automobilis atvažiuoja" (the theme first; word order inversion).
Lithuanian also has a very rich word derivation system and an array of diminutive suffixes.
Today there are two definitive books on Lithuanian grammar: one in English, the Introduction to Modern Lithuanian (called Beginner's Lithuanian in its newer editions) by Leonardas Dambriūnas, Antanas Klimas and William R. Schmalstieg; and another in Russian, Vytautas Ambrazas' Грамматика литовского языка (Lithuanian Grammar). Another recent book on Lithuanian grammar is the second edition of Review of Modern Lithuanian Grammar by Edmund Remys, published by Lithuanian Research and Studies Center, Chicago, 2003.
Vocabulary
Indo-European vocabulary
Lithuanian retains
- Lith. sūnus and Skt. sūnu (son)
- Lith. avis and Skt. avi and Lat. ovis (sheep)
- Lith. dūmas and Skt. dhūma and Lat. fumus (fumes, smoke)
- Lith. antras and Skt. antara (second, the other)
- Lith. vilkas and Skt. vṛka (wolf)
- Lith. ratas and Lat. rota (wheel) and Skt. ratha (carriage)
- Lith. senis and Lat. senex (an old man) and Skt. sanas (old)
- Lith. vyras and Lat. vir (a man) and Skt. vīra (man)
- Lith. angis and Lat. anguis (a snake in Latin, a species of snakes in Lithuanian)
- Lith. linas and Lat. linum (flax, compare with English 'linen')
- Lith. ariu and Lat. aro (I plow)
- Lith. jungiu and Lat. iungo, and Skt. yuñje (mid.), (I join)
- Lith. gentys and Lat. gentes and Skt. játi (tribes)
- Lith. mėnesis and Lat. mensis and Skt. masa (month)
- Lith. dantis and Lat. dens and Skt. danta (tooth)
- Lith. naktis and Lat. noctes (plural of nox) and Skt. naktam (night)
- Lith. ugnis and Lat. ignis and Skt. agni (fire)
- Lith. sėdime and Lat. sedemus and Skt. sīdama (we sit)
This even extends to grammar, where for example Latin noun declensions ending in -um often correspond to Lithuanian -ų, with the Latin and Lithuanian fourth declensions being particularly close. Many of the words from this list are similar to other Indo-European languages, including English and Russian. The contribution of Lithuanian was influential in the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European.
Lexical and grammatical similarities between Baltic and Slavic languages suggest an affinity between these two language groups. On the other hand, there exist a number of Baltic (particularly Lithuanian) words without counterparts in Slavic languages, but which are similar to words in Sanskrit or Latin. The history of the relationship between Baltic and Slavic languages, and our understanding of the affinity between the two groups, remain in dispute (see: Balto-Slavic languages).
Loanwords
In a 1934 book entitled Die Germanismen des Litauischen. Teil I: Die deutschen Lehnwörter im Litauischen, K. Alminauskis found 2,770 loanwords, of which about 130 were of uncertain origin. The majority of the loanwords were found to have been derived from Polish, Belarusian, and German, with some evidence that these languages all acquired the words from contacts and trade with Prussia during the era of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[129] Loanwords comprised about 20% of the vocabulary used in the first book printed in Lithuanian in 1547, Martynas Mažvydas's Catechism.[130] But as a result of language preservation and purging policies, Slavic loanwords currently constitute only 1.5% of the Standard Lithuanian lexicon, while German loanwords constitute only 0.5% of it.[131] The majority of loanwords in the 20th century arrived from Russian.[132]
Towards the end of the 20th century, a number of words and expressions related to new technologies and telecommunications were borrowed from English. The Lithuanian government has an established language policy that encourages the development of equivalent vocabulary to replace loanwords.[133] However, despite the government's best efforts to avoid the use of loanwords in Lithuanian, many English words have become accepted and are now included in Lithuanian language dictionaries.[134][135] In particular, words having to do with new technologies have permeated the Lithuanian vernacular, including such words as:
- Monitorius (vaizduoklis) (computer monitor)
- Faksas (fax)
- Kompiuteris (computer)
- Failas (byla, rinkmena) (electronic file)
Other common foreign words have also been adopted by Lithuanian. Some of these include:
These words have been modified to suit the grammatical and phonetic requirements of Lithuanian, mostly by adding -as ending, but their foreign roots are obvious.
Old Lithuanian
The language of the earliest Lithuanian writings, in the 16th and 17th centuries, is known as Old Lithuanian and differs in some significant respects from the Lithuanian of today.
Besides the specific differences given below, nouns, verbs, and adjectives still had separate endings for the dual number. The dual persists today in some dialects. Example:
Case | "two good friends" |
---|---|
Nom-Acc | dù gerù draugù |
Dat | dvı̇́em gerı̇́em draugám |
Inst | dviẽm geriẽm draugam̃ |
Pronunciation
The vowels written ą, ę, į, ų were still pronounced as long nasal vowels,[136] not as long oral vowels as in today's Lithuanian.
The original Baltic long ā was still retained as such, e.g. bralis 'brother' (modern brólis).
Nouns
Compared to modern Lithuanian, there were three additional cases. The original
- The inessive added *-en > -e to the original locative in singular and to the accusative in plural.
- The illative added *-nā > -n(a) to the accusative.
- The adessive added *-pie > -p(i) to the original locative in singular and to the inessive in plural.
- The allative added *-pie > -p(i) to the genitive.
The inessive has become the modern locative case, while the other three have disappeared. Note, however, that the illative case is still used occasionally in the colloquial language (mostly in the singular): Lietuvon 'to Lithuania', miestan 'to the city'. This form is relatively productive: for instance, it is not uncommon to hear "skrendame Niujorkan (we are flying to New York)".
The uncontracted dative plural -mus was still common.
Adjectives
Adjectives could belong to all four accent classes in Old Lithuanian (now they can only belong to classes 3 and 4).
Additional remnants of i-stem adjectives still existed, e.g.:
- loc. sg. didimè pulkè 'in the big crowd' (now didžiame)
- loc. sg. gerèsnime 'better' (now geresniamè)
- loc. sg. mažiáusime 'smallest' (now mažiáusiame)
Additional remnants of u-stem adjectives still existed, e.g. rūgštùs 'sour':
Case | Newer | Older |
---|---|---|
Inst sg | rūgščiù | rūgštumı̇̀ |
Loc sg | rūgščiamè | rūgštumè |
Gen pl | rūgščių̃ | rūgštų̃ |
Acc pl | rū́gščius | rū́gštus |
Inst pl | rūgščiaı̇̃s | rūgštumı̇̀s |
No u-stem remnants existed in the dative singular and locative plural.
Definite adjectives, originally involving a pronoun suffixed to an adjective, had not merged into a single word in Old Lithuanian. Examples:
- pa-jo-prasto 'ordinary' (now pàprastojo)
- nu-jie-vargę 'tired' (now nuvar̃gusieji)
Verbs
The
'be' | 'remain' | 'give' | 'save' | |
---|---|---|---|---|
1st sg | esmı̇̀ | liekmı̇̀ | dúomi | gélbmi |
2nd sg | esı̇̀ | lieksı̇̀ | dúosi | gélbsi |
3rd sg | ẽst(i) | liẽkt(i) | dúost(i) | gélbt(i) |
1st dual | esvà | liekvà | dúova | gélbva |
2nd dual | està | liektà | dúosta | gélbta |
1st pl | esmè | liekmè | dúome | gélbme |
2nd pl | estè | liektè | dúoste | gélbte |
3rd pl | ẽsti | liẽkt(i) | dúost(i) | gélbt(i) |
The optative mood (i.e. the third-person imperative) still had its own endings, -ai for third-conjugation verbs and -ie for other verbs, instead of using regular third-person present endings.
Syntax
Word order was freer in Old Lithuanian. For example, a noun in the genitive case could either precede or follow the noun it modifies.
Further reading
- Bakšienė, Rima; Čepaitienė, Agnė; Jaroslavienė, Jurgita; Urbanavičienė, Jolita (2023). "Standard Lithuanian". Illustrations of the IPA. Journal of the International Phonetic Association: 1–31. , with supplementary sound recordings.
See also
Citations
- ^ Lithuanian language at Ethnologue (19th ed., 2016)
- ^ Rodiklių duomenų bazė. "Oficialiosios statistikos portalas". osp.stat.gov.lt (in Lithuanian).
- ISBN 5-420-01085-2.
...linguist generally accepted that Lithuanian is the most archaic among living Indo-European languages...
- ^ a b "Lithuanian Language". Encyclopedia Britannica.
- ^ Bonifacas, Stundžia (20 November 2021). "How did Vytautas the Great speak and would we manage to have a conversation with VI century Lithuanians?". 15min. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
- ^ "Ever wanted to travel back in time? Talk to a Lithuanian!". Terminology Coordination Unit of the European Parliament. 19 August 2014. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
- ^ a b Smalstieg, William (1982). "The Origin of the Lithuanian Language". Lituanus. 28 (1). Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 7 August 2016 – via lituanus.org.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Zinkevičius, Zigmas. "Lietuvių kalbos kilmė" [The Origin of the Lithuanian Language]. Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 21 January 2023.
- ^ Patackas, Algirdas. "Apie galindus, baltų gentį, ir jų kelionę į vakarus, pasaulio pakraštį (nuotraukos)". lrytas.lt (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 22 January 2023.
- ^ "Baltų kalbos ir tautos". Aidai.eu (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 22 January 2023.
- .
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- ^ Sabaliauskas, Algirdas (2007). "Remembering Vladimir Toporov". Lituanus. 53 (2). Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 4 April 2018 – via lituanus.org.
- ^ "Jan Safarewicz". Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 21 January 2023.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Zinkevičius, Zigmas. "Lietuvių rašomoji kalba". Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 15 January 2023.
- ^ "Tarp Europos kalbų U. Richentalis paminėjo ir Lingwa Lietowia – lietuvių kalbą" (PDF). Lietuvos bajoras (in Lithuanian) (21): 22. 2015. Retrieved 17 January 2023.
- ^ Ulrich of Richenthal. Concilium zu Constencz (Chronik des Konstanzer Konzils) (in German). p. 232v. Retrieved 17 January 2023.
- ^ Rutkauskienė, Violeta (2016). "Istorinės Lietuvos valdovų vėliavos ir LDK delegacijos herbai Konstanco metraštininkų kronikose" (PDF). Voruta (in Lithuanian) (1): 5. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
- ^ Poliakovas, Olegas. "Slavų kanceliarinė kalba". Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 16 February 2023.
- ^ a b "Kurie Lietuvos valdovai mokėjo protėvių kalbą, kurie – ne? / Laida "Lietuva – mūsų lūpose"". YouTube (in Lithuanian). Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
- ^ 15min.lt(in Lithuanian). Retrieved 16 February 2023.
- ^ a b Statkuvienė, Regina. "Jogailaičiai. Kodėl ne Gediminaičiai?". 15min.lt (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 16 February 2023.
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- Vytautas the Great; Valkūnas, Leonas (translation from Latin). Vytauto laiškai [ Letters of Vytautas the Great ] (PDF) (in Lithuanian). Vilnius University, Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore. p. 6. Retrieved 4 March 2023.
Juk pirmiausia Jūs padarėte ir paskelbėte sprendimą dėl Žemaičių žemės, kuri yra mūsų paveldėjimas ir mūsų tėvonija iš teisėtos prosenolių bei senolių įpėdinystės. Ją ir dabar nuosavybėje turime, ji dabar yra ir visada buvo viena ir ta pati Lietuvos žemė, nes yra viena kalba bei tie patys gyventojai. (...) Taip pat Žemaitijos žmonės nuo senų laikų save vadino lietuviais ir niekada žemaičiais, ir dėl tokio tapatumo (sic) savo rašte mes nerašome apie Žemaitiją, nes viskas yra viena, vienas kraštas ir tie patys gyventojai.
- ^ Ulčinaitė, Eugenija; Jovaišas, Albinas. "Lietuvių kalba ir literatūros istorija" (in Lithuanian). Archived from the original on 26 October 2007.
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- ^ Stryjkowski, Maciej (1582). Kronika Polska, Litewska, Zmódzka i wszystkiéj Rusi. Warszawa Nak. G.L. Glüsksverga. p. 207. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
- ^ a b c d e Dubonis, Artūras (2016). "The Prestige and decline of the official (state) language in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (fifteenth-sixteenth century): problems in Belarusian historiography". Lithuanian historical studies. 20: 6–7, 21. Retrieved 3 November 2023.
- ^ Kutrzeba, Stanisław; Semkowicz, Władysław (1932). Akta unji Polski z Litwą, 1385-1791. Kraków: Polska Akademia Umiejętności. p. 117. Retrieved 4 November 2023.
- ^ "Šventojo Kazimiero gyvenimo istorija". Vilnius Cathedral (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 3 March 2023.
Jo gyvenimą tyrinėjo popiežiaus Leono X legatas vyskupas Z. Ferreri. 1521 m. jis išspausdino biografiją "Vita beati Casimiri, scripta Vilniae" – tai vienintelis XVI a. šaltinis, kalbantis apie asketišką Kazimiero gyvenimą. Autorius akcentuoja, kad Kazimieras mokėjęs lietuvių, lenkų, vokiečių ir lotynų kalbas, turėjęs nemažai dorybių: buvo teisingas, susivaldantis, tvirtos dvasios, išmintingas.
- ^ Pietkiwicz, K. (1997). Dwór litewski wielkiego księcia Aleksandra Jagiellończyka (1492–1506). Vilnius.
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- ^ Smolarczyk, Andrzej. Administracja państwowa wobec szkolnictwa mniejszości narodowych na terenach województw północno-wschodnich II Rzeczypospolitej w latach 1935–1939 (PDF) (in Polish). Politechnika Białostocka. pp. 98–120.
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- ^ a b "Lietuvos sovietinimas, rusinimas ir kolonizavimas". Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 15 January 2023.
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- ^ Kortlandt, Frederik (2009), Baltica & Balto-Slavica, p. 5,
Though Prussian is undoubtedly closer to the East Baltic languages than to Slavic, the characteristic features of the Baltic languages seem to be either retentions or results of parallel development and cultural interaction. Thus I assume that Balto-Slavic split into three identifiable branches, each of which followed its own course of development.
- ^ Derksen, Rick (2008), Etymological Dictionary of the Slavic Inherited Lexicon, p. 20,
I am not convinced that it is justified to reconstruct a Proto-Baltic stage. The term Proto-Baltic is used for convenience's sake.
- ^ Dini 2000, p. 138.
- ^ Zinkevičius (1984), pp. 117–138, 209–210.
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- ^ Birnbaum, H. Х. Бирнбаум (1985). "O dvukh osnovnykh napravleniyakh v yazykovom razvitii" О двух основных направлениях в языковом развитии (PDF). Voprosy yazykoznaniya Вопросы языкознания (in Russian). 1985 (2): 36.
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- ^ Subačius 2005, p. 9-10.
- ^ Drungilas, Jonas; Šinkūnas, Mindaugas (2018). "1680 m. lietuviška priesaika dėl Svobiškio dvaro žemių". Istorijos šaltinių tyrimai (in Lithuanian). 6: 359–368. Retrieved 28 November 2023.
- ^ Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:?)
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Cepiene, N. (2006). "Ways of Germanisms into Lithuanian". Acta Baltico-Slavica (Abstract). 30: 241–250. Archived from the original on 6 February 2012.
- ^ Zinkevičius, Zigmas (1996). "Martynas Mažvydas' Language". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 26 October 2007 – via pirmojiknyga.mch.mii.lt.
- ^ "Skoliniai". Studijos (in Lithuanian). Archived from the original on 19 February 2013. Retrieved 21 November 2012.
- ^ Sakalauskienė, V. (2006). "Slavic loanwords in the northern sub-dialect of the southern part of west high Lithuanian". Acta Baltico-Slavica (Abstract). 30: 221–231. Archived from the original on 6 February 2012. Retrieved 26 October 2007.
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General sources
- Ambrazas, Vytautas; Geniušienė, Emma; Girdenis, Aleksas; Sližienė, Nijolė; Valeckienė, Adelė; Valiulytė, Elena; Tekorienė, Dalija; Pažūsis, Lionginas (1997), Ambrazas, Vytautas (ed.), Lithuanian Grammar, Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language, ISBN 9986-813-22-0
- Dambriūnas, Leonardas; Antanas Klimas, William R. Schmalstieg, Beginner's Lithuanian, Hippocrene Books, 1999, ISBN 0-7818-0678-X. Older editions (copyright 1966) called "Introduction to modern Lithuanian".
- Dini, P. U. (2000). Baltų kalbos: Lyginamoji istorija [Baltic Languages: A Comparative History] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. ISBN 5-420-01444-0.
- Klimas, Antanas. "Baltic and Slavic revisited". Lituanus vol. 19, no. 1, Spring 1973. Archived from the original on 6 May 2008. Retrieved 23 October 2007.
- ISBN 0-631-19815-6.
- Remys, Edmund, Review of Modern Lithuanian Grammar, Lithuanian Research and Studies Center, Chicago, 2nd revised edition, 2003.
- Remys, Edmund, General distinguishing features of various Indo-European languages and their relationship to Lithuanian, Indogermanische Forschungen, Berlin, New York, 2007.
- ISBN 5-420-00102-0.
- Subačius, Giedrius (2005). The Lithuanian language: traditions and trends (PDF). The Lithuanian Institute, ISBN 9955-548-09-6. Retrieved 16 January 2023.
- Venckienė, Jurgita (2017). "Lietuviški XIX a. pabaigos ir XX a. pradžios antkapių užrašai: santykis su bendrine kalba" (PDF). Archivum Lithuanicum (in Lithuanian) (19). Vilnius: Lithuanian Institute of History. Retrieved 16 January 2023.
External links
- Baltic Online – Series Introduction
- Academic Dictionary of Lithuanian
- The Historical Grammar of Lithuanian language
- 2005 analysis of Indo-European linguistic relationships
- Lithuanian verbs training
- Lithuanian verbs test
- Encyclopaedia Britannica – Lithuanian language
- glottothèque – Ancient Indo-European Grammars online, an online collection of introductory videos to Ancient Indo-European languages produced by the University of Göttingen