Locus coeruleus
Locus coeruleus | |
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HE-LFB stain. | |
Details | |
Identifiers | |
Latin | locus caeruleus ("blue place") |
MeSH | D008125 |
NeuroNames | 583 |
NeuroLex ID | birnlex_905 |
TA98 | A14.1.05.436 A14.1.05.706 |
TA2 | 5944 |
FMA | 72478 |
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy] |
The locus coeruleus (
The locus coeruleus, which in Latin means "blue spot", is the principal site for brain synthesis of norepinephrine (noradrenaline). The locus coeruleus and the areas of the body affected by the norepinephrine it produces are described collectively as the locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system or LC-NA system.[3] Norepinephrine may also be released directly into the blood from the adrenal medulla.
Anatomy
The locus coeruleus (LC) is located in the posterior area of the rostral
In adult humans (19-78) the locus coeruleus has 22,000 to 51,000 total pigmented neurons that range in size between 31,000 and 60,000 μm3.[4]
Connections
The projections of this nucleus reach far and wide. For example, they innervate the
As an important
Inputs
The locus coeruleus receives inputs from a number of other brain regions, primarily:
- The Medial prefrontal cortex, whose connection is constant, excitatory, and increases in strength with raised activity levels in the subject
- The Nucleus paragigantocellularis, which integrates autonomic and environmental stimuli
- The Nucleus prepositus, which is involved in gaze
- The Lateral hypothalamus, which releases orexin, which, as well as its other functions, is excitatory in the locus coeruleus.
Outputs
The projections from the locus coeruleus consist of neurons that utilize norepinephrine as their primary neurotransmitter.[5][6] These projections include the following connections:[5][6]
- LC → Amygdala and Hippocampus
- LC → Brain stem and Spinal cord
- LC → Cerebellum
- LC → Cerebral cortex
- LC → Hypothalamus
- LC → Tectum
- LC → Thalamus
- LC → Ventral tegmental area
Function
It is related to many functions via its widespread projections. The LC-NA system modulates cortical, subcortical, cerebellar, brainstem, and spinal cord circuits. Some of the most important functions influenced by this system are:[7][8]
- sleep-wake cycle
- Attention[9] and memory
- Behavioral and stress (psychological)
- Cognitive control
- Decision making and utility maximization[12]
- Emotions
- Neuroplasticity
- Posture and balance
The locus coeruleus is a part of the
Pathophysiology
The locus coeruleus may figure in
Research continues to reveal that norepinephrine (NE) is a critical regulator of numerous activities from stress response, the formation of memory to attention and arousal. Many neuropsychiatric disorders precipitate from alterations to NE modulated neurocircuitry: disorders of affect, anxiety disorders, PTSD, ADHD and Alzheimer's disease. Alterations in the locus coeruleus (LC) accompany dysregulation of NE function and likely play a key role in the pathophysiology of these neuropsychiatric disorders.[15]
In stress
The locus coeruleus is responsible for mediating many of the sympathetic effects during stress. The locus coeruleus is activated by stress, and will respond by increasing norepinephrine secretion, which in turn will alter cognitive function (through the prefrontal cortex), increase motivation (through
The LC's role in cognitive function in relation to stress is complex and multi-modal. Norepinephrine released from the LC can act on α2 receptors to increase working memory, or an excess of NE may decrease working memory by binding to the lower-affinity α1 receptors.[17]
Psychiatric research has documented that enhanced noradrenergic postsynaptic responsiveness in the neuronal pathway (brain circuit) that originates in the locus coeruleus and ends in the
In opiate withdrawal
Opioids inhibit the firing of neurons in the locus coeruleus. When opioid consumption is stopped, the increased activity of the locus coeruleus contributes to the symptoms of opiate withdrawal. The α2 adrenergic receptor agonist clonidine is used to counteract this withdrawal effect by decreasing adrenergic neurotransmission from the locus coeruleus.[19]
Rett syndrome
The genetic defect of the transcriptional regulator
Neurodegenerative diseases
The locus ceruleus is affected in many forms of neurodegenerative diseases: genetic and idiopathic
Sleep deprivation
Animal studies showed that sleep deprivation can reduce the number of neurons in the locus coeruleus. Therefore the possibility of lasting damages to human brain functions due to sleep deprivation has become a matter of discussion.[35]
History
The locus coeruleus was discovered in 1784 by
Etymology
Coeruleus or caeruleus
The 'English' name locus coeruleus
The spelling coeruleus is actually considered incorrect,
Official Latin nomenclature
The official Latin nomenclature, Nomina Anatomica as ratified in Basel in 1895[50] and in Jena in 1935[51][52] contained the orthographically correct form locus caeruleus. The Nomina Anatomica published in 1955[53] inadvertently introduced the incorrect spelling locus coeruleus, without further explanation. The subsequent edition monophthongized the diphthong, resulting in locus ceruleus,[54] as they proclaimed that: "All diphthongs should be eliminated".[55] This form was retained in the subsequent edition.[55] The following two editions from 1977[56] and 1983[57] reverted the orthography back to the incorrect spelling locus coeruleus, while the subsequent edition from 1989[58] eventually returned to the correct spelling locus caeruleus. The current edition of the Nomina Anatomica, rebaptized as Terminologia Anatomica,[59] dictates locus caeruleus in its list of Latin expressions and correspondingly mentions locus caeruleus in its list of English equivalents. This is in line with the statement made by the chairman of the Terminologia Anatomica that "the committee decided that Latin terms when used in English should be in correct Latin".[60]
In popular culture
On The Big Bang Theory, season 5, episode 16 ("The Vacation Solution"), Amy tasks Sheldon with removing the locus coeruleus from a tissue sample.
See also
References
- ^ "locus coeruleus | a bluish area of the brain stem with many norepinephrine-containing neurons". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 26 July 2015.
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- ^ ISBN 9780071481274.
Different subregions of the VTA receive glutamatergic inputs from the prefrontal cortex, orexinergic inputs from the lateral hypothalamus, cholinergic and also glutamatergic and GABAergic inputs from the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus and pedunculopontine nucleus, noradrenergic inputs from the locus ceruleus, serotonergic inputs from the raphe nuclei, and GABAergic inputs from the nucleus accumbens and ventral pallidum.
- ^ ISBN 9780071481274.
The locus ceruleus (LC), which is located on the floor of the fourth ventricle in the rostral pons, contains more than 50% of all noradrenergic neurons in the brain; it innervates both the forebrain (eg, it provides virtually all the NE to the cerebral cortex) and regions of the brainstem and spinal cord. ... The other noradrenergic neurons in the brain occur in loose collections of cells in the brainstem, including the lateral tegmental regions. These neurons project largely within the brainstem and spinal cord. NE, along with 5HT, ACh, histamine, and orexin, is a critical regulator of the sleep-wake cycle and of levels of arousal. ... LC firing may also increase anxiety ...Stimulation of β-adrenergic receptors in the amygdala results in enhanced memory for stimuli encoded under strong negative emotion ... Epinephrine occurs in only a small number of central neurons, all located in the medulla. Epinephrine is involved in visceral functions, such as control of respiration.
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- ^ Ressler KJ, Nemeroff CB. Role of norepinephrine in the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric disorders. CNS Spectr. 2001 Aug;6(8):663-6, 670.
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- ^ Mackenzie, Ruairi J (22 September 2021). "The Brain's "Blue Spot" may Help Identify Alzheimer's Earlier". Technology Networks. Retrieved 30 September 2021.
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- ^ a b Wenzel, Josephus; Wenzel, Carolus (1812). De penitiori structura cerebri hominis et brutorum (in Latin). Tübingen: Cottam. p. 168. Retrieved 26 July 2019.
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- ^ Anderson, D.M. (2000). Dorland's illustrated medical dictionary (29th edition). Philadelphia/London/Toronto/Montreal/Sydney/Tokyo: W.B. Saunders Company.
- ^ a b c d e f Lewis, C.T. & Short, C. (1879). A Latin dictionary founded on Andrews' edition of Freund's Latin dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- ^ Kraus, L.A. (1844). Kritisch-etymologisches medicinisches Lexikon (Dritte Auflage). Göttingen: Verlag der Deuerlich- und Dieterichschen Buchhandlung.
- ^ Foster, F.D. (1891-1893). An illustrated medical dictionary. Being a dictionary of the technical terms used by writers on medicine and the collateral sciences, in the Latin, English, French, and German languages. New York: D. Appleton and Company.
- ^ Barker, L.W. (1907). Anatomical terminology with special reference to the [BNA]. With vocabularies in Latin and English and illustrations. Philadelphia: P. Blakiston's Son & Co.
- ^ Triepel, H. (1910). Die anatomischen Namen. Ihre Ableitung und Aussprache. Mit einem Anhang: Biographische Notizen.(Dritte Auflage). Wiesbaden: Verlag J.F. Bergmann.
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- ^ a b Niermeyer, J.F. (1976). Mediae Latinitatis lexicon minus.Lexique Latin médiéval-Français/Anglais. A medieval Latin-French/English dictionary. Leiden: E.J. BriLL.
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- ^ His, W. (1895). Die anatomische Nomenclatur. Nomina Anatomica. Der von der Anatomischen Gesellschaft auf ihrer IX. Versammlung in Basel angenommenen Namen. Leipzig: Verlag Veit & Comp.
- ^ Kopsch, F. (1941). Die Nomina anatomica des Jahres 1895 (B.N.A.) nach der Buchstabenreihe geordnet und gegenübergestellt den Nomina anatomica des Jahres 1935 (I.N.A.) (3. Auflage). Leipzig: Georg Thieme Verlag.
- ^ Stieve, H. (1949). Nomina Anatomica. Zusammengestellt von der im Jahre 1923 gewählten Nomenklatur-Kommission, unter Berücksichtigung der Vorschläge der Mitglieder der Anatomischen Gesellschaft, der Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland, sowie der American Association of Anatomists, überprüft und durch Beschluß der Anatomischen Gesellschaft auf der Tagung in Jena 1935 endgúltig angenommen. (4th edition). Jena: Verlag Gustav Fischer.
- ^ International Anatomical Nomenclature Committee (1955). Nomina Anatomica . London/Colchester:Spottiswoode, Ballantyne and Co. Ltd.
- ^ Donáth, T. & Crawford, G.C.N. (1969). Anatomical dictionary with nomenclature and explanatory notes. Oxford/London/Edinburgh/New York/Toronto/Syney/Paris/Braunschweig: Pergamon Press.
- ^ a b International Anatomical Nomenclature Committee (1966). Nomina Anatomica. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica Foundation.
- ^ International Anatomical Nomenclature Committee (1977). Nomina Anatomica, together with Nomina Histologica and Nomina Embryologica. Amsterdam-Oxford: Excerpta Medica.
- ^ International Anatomical Nomenclature Committee (1983). Nomina Anatomica, together with Nomina Histologica and Nomina Embryologica. Baltimore/London: Williams & Wilkins
- ^ International Anatomical Nomenclature Committee (1989). Nomina Anatomica, together with Nomina Histologica and Nomina Embryologica. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
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A novel based upon real facts by Max Trasin, Pentian 2016
External links
- "A Lecture, Higher Brain Function: Activation of the Brain and Levels of Consciousness" at East Tennessee State University
- Microstructural integrity of the locus coeruleus and its tracts reflect noradrenergic degeneration in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease
- Stained brain slice images which include the "locus coeruleus" at the BrainMaps project
- Diagram at University of Texas at Austin
- Diagram at University of Virginia
- https://web.archive.org/web/20070512234228/http://www2.umdnj.edu/~neuro/studyaid/Practical2000/Q45.htm