Logical conjunction

Logical conjunction

AND
Definition	${\displaystyle xy}$
Truth table	${\displaystyle (1000)}$
Logic gate
Normal forms
Disjunctive	${\displaystyle xy}$
Conjunctive	${\displaystyle xy}$
Zhegalkin polynomial	${\displaystyle xy}$
Post's lattices
0-preserving	yes
1-preserving	yes
Monotone	no
Affine	no
Self-dual	no
v t e

Logical connectives
AND ${\displaystyle A\land B}$, ${\displaystyle A\cdot B}$, ${\displaystyle AB}$, ${\displaystyle A\&B}$, ${\displaystyle A\&\&B}$ equivalent ${\displaystyle A\equiv B}$, ${\displaystyle A\Leftrightarrow B}$, ${\displaystyle A\leftrightharpoons B}$ implies ${\displaystyle A\Rightarrow B}$, ${\displaystyle A\supset B}$, ${\displaystyle A\rightarrow B}$ NAND ${\displaystyle A{\overline {\land }}B}$, ${\displaystyle A\uparrow B}$, ${\displaystyle A\mid B}$, ${\displaystyle {\overline {A\cdot B}}}$ nonequivalent ${\displaystyle A\not \equiv B}$, ${\displaystyle A\not \Leftrightarrow B}$, ${\displaystyle A\nleftrightarrow B}$ NOR ${\displaystyle A{\overline {\lor }}B}$, ${\displaystyle A\downarrow B}$, ${\displaystyle {\overline {A+B}}}$ NOT ${\displaystyle \neg A}$, ${\displaystyle -A}$, ${\displaystyle {\overline {A}}}$, ${\displaystyle \sim A}$ OR ${\displaystyle A\lor B}$, ${\displaystyle A+B}$, ${\displaystyle A\mid B}$, ${\displaystyle A\parallel B}$ XNOR ${\displaystyle A\ {\text{XNOR}}\ B}$ XOR ${\displaystyle A{\underline {\lor }}B}$, ${\displaystyle A\oplus B}$ converse ${\displaystyle A\Leftarrow B}$, ${\displaystyle A\subset B}$, ${\displaystyle A\leftarrow B}$
Related concepts
Propositional calculus Predicate logic Boolean algebra Truth table Truth function Boolean function Functional completeness Scope (logic)
Applications
Digital logic Programming languages Mathematical logic Philosophy of logic
Category
v t e

In logic, mathematics and linguistics, and (${\displaystyle \wedge }$) is the truth-functional operator of conjunction or logical conjunction. The logical connective of this operator is typically represented as ${\displaystyle \wedge }$^[1] or ${\displaystyle \&}$ or ${\displaystyle K}$ (prefix) or ${\displaystyle \times }$ or ${\displaystyle \cdot }$^[2] in which ${\displaystyle \wedge }$ is the most modern and widely used.

The and of a set of operands is true if and only if all of its operands are true, i.e., ${\displaystyle A\land B}$ is true if and only if ${\displaystyle A}$ is true and ${\displaystyle B}$ is true.

An operand of a conjunction is a conjunct.^[3]

Beyond logic, the term "conjunction" also refers to similar concepts in other fields:

• In natural language, the denotation of expressions such as English "and";
• In programming languages, the short-circuit and control structure;
• In set theory, intersection.
• In lattice theory, logical conjunction (greatest lower bound).

And is usually denoted by an infix operator: in mathematics and logic, it is denoted by ${\displaystyle \wedge }$ (Unicode U+2227 ∧ LOGICAL AND),^[1] ${\displaystyle \&}$ or ${\displaystyle \times }$; in electronics, ${\displaystyle \cdot }$; and in programming languages, &, &&, or and. In Jan Łukasiewicz's prefix notation for logic, the operator is ${\displaystyle K}$, for Polish koniunkcja.^[4]

Logical conjunction is an

The conjunctive identity is true, which is to say that AND-ing an expression with true will never change the value of the expression. In keeping with the concept of vacuous truth, when conjunction is defined as an operator or function of arbitrary arity, the empty conjunction (AND-ing over an empty set of operands) is often defined as having the result true.

Sierpinski triangle

.

The truth table of ${\displaystyle A\land B}$:^[1][2]

${\displaystyle A}$	${\displaystyle B}$	${\displaystyle A\land B}$
F	F	F
F	T	F
T	F	F
T	T	T

In systems where logical conjunction is not a primitive, it may be defined as^[5]

${\displaystyle A\land B=\neg (A\to \neg B)}$

or

${\displaystyle A\land B=\neg (\neg A\lor \neg B).}$

As a rule of inference,

. The argument form has two premises, ${\displaystyle A}$ and ${\displaystyle B}$. Intuitively, it permits the inference of their conjunction.

${\displaystyle A}$,

${\displaystyle B}$.

Therefore, A and B.

or in

notation:

${\displaystyle A,}$

${\displaystyle B}$

${\displaystyle \vdash A\land B}$

Here is an example of an argument that fits the form conjunction introduction:

Bob likes apples.

Bob likes oranges.

Therefore, Bob likes apples and Bob likes oranges.

. Intuitively, it permits the inference from any conjunction of either element of that conjunction.

${\displaystyle A}$ and ${\displaystyle B}$.

Therefore, ${\displaystyle A}$.

...or alternatively,

${\displaystyle A}$ and ${\displaystyle B}$.

Therefore, ${\displaystyle B}$.

In

notation:

${\displaystyle A\land B}$

${\displaystyle \vdash A}$

...or alternatively,

${\displaystyle A\land B}$

${\displaystyle \vdash B}$

A conjunction ${\displaystyle A\land B}$ is proven false by establishing either ${\displaystyle \neg A}$ or ${\displaystyle \neg B}$. In terms of the object language, this reads

${\displaystyle \neg A\to \neg (A\land B)}$

This formula can be seen as a special case of

${\displaystyle (A\to C)\to ((A\land B)\to C)}$

when ${\displaystyle C}$ is a false proposition.

If ${\displaystyle A}$ implies ${\displaystyle \neg B}$, then both ${\displaystyle \neg A}$ as well as ${\displaystyle A}$ prove the conjunction false:

${\displaystyle (A\to \neg {}B)\to \neg (A\land B)}$

In other words, a conjunction can actually be proven false just by knowing about the relation of its conjuncts, and not necessary about their truth values.

This formula can be seen as a special case of

${\displaystyle (A\to (B\to C))\to ((A\land B)\to C)}$

when ${\displaystyle C}$ is a false proposition.

Either of the above are constructively valid proofs by contradiction.

commutativity: yes

${\displaystyle A\land B}$	${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$	${\displaystyle B\land A}$
	${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$

${\displaystyle ~A}$	${\displaystyle ~~~\land ~~~}$	${\displaystyle (B\land C)}$	${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$			${\displaystyle (A\land B)}$	${\displaystyle ~~~\land ~~~}$	${\displaystyle ~C}$
	${\displaystyle ~~~\land ~~~}$		${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$		${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$		${\displaystyle ~~~\land ~~~}$

${\displaystyle ~A}$	${\displaystyle \land }$	${\displaystyle (B\lor C)}$	${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$			${\displaystyle (A\land B)}$	${\displaystyle \lor }$	${\displaystyle (A\land C)}$
	${\displaystyle \land }$		${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$		${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$		${\displaystyle \lor }$

others

with exclusive or: ${\displaystyle ~A}$ ${\displaystyle \land }$ ${\displaystyle (B\oplus C)}$     ${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$     ${\displaystyle (A\land B)}$ ${\displaystyle \oplus }$ ${\displaystyle (A\land C)}$ ${\displaystyle \land }$     ${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$         ${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$     ${\displaystyle \oplus }$ with material nonimplication: ${\displaystyle ~A}$ ${\displaystyle \land }$ ${\displaystyle (B\nrightarrow C)}$     ${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$     ${\displaystyle (A\land B)}$ ${\displaystyle \nrightarrow }$ ${\displaystyle (A\land C)}$ ${\displaystyle \land }$     ${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$         ${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$     ${\displaystyle \nrightarrow }$ with itself: ${\displaystyle ~A}$ ${\displaystyle \land }$ ${\displaystyle (B\land C)}$     ${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$     ${\displaystyle (A\land B)}$ ${\displaystyle \land }$ ${\displaystyle (A\land C)}$ ${\displaystyle \land }$     ${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$         ${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$     ${\displaystyle \land }$

idempotency

: yes

${\displaystyle ~A~}$	${\displaystyle ~\land ~}$	${\displaystyle ~A~}$	${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$	${\displaystyle A~}$
	${\displaystyle ~\land ~}$		${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$

monotonicity: yes

${\displaystyle A\rightarrow B}$	${\displaystyle \Rightarrow }$			${\displaystyle (A\land C)}$	${\displaystyle \rightarrow }$	${\displaystyle (B\land C)}$
	${\displaystyle \Rightarrow }$		${\displaystyle \Leftrightarrow }$		${\displaystyle \rightarrow }$

truth-preserving: yes
When all inputs are true, the output is true.

${\displaystyle A\land B}$	${\displaystyle \Rightarrow }$	${\displaystyle A\land B}$
	${\displaystyle \Rightarrow }$
		(to be tested)

falsehood-preserving: yes
When all inputs are false, the output is false.

${\displaystyle A\land B}$	${\displaystyle \Rightarrow }$	${\displaystyle A\lor B}$
	${\displaystyle \Rightarrow }$
(to be tested)

Walsh spectrum: (1,-1,-1,1)

Non

)

If using

.

Applications in computer engineering

In high-level computer programming and digital electronics, logical conjunction is commonly represented by an infix operator, usually as a keyword such as "AND", an algebraic multiplication, or the ampersand symbol & (sometimes doubled as in &&). Many languages also provide short-circuit control structures corresponding to logical conjunction.

Logical conjunction is often used for bitwise operations, where 0 corresponds to false and 1 to true:

• 0 AND 0  =  0,
• 0 AND 1  =  0,
• 1 AND 0  =  0,
• 1 AND 1  =  1.

The operation can also be applied to two binary

of equal length, by taking the bitwise AND of each pair of bits at corresponding positions. For example:

• 11000110 AND 10100011  =  10000010.

This can be used to select part of a bitstring using a bit mask. For example, 10011101 AND 00001000  =  00001000 extracts the fourth bit of an 8-bit bitstring.

In

.

Logical conjunction "AND" is also used in SQL operations to form database queries.

The Curry–Howard correspondence relates logical conjunction to product types.

The membership of an element of an intersection set in set theory is defined in terms of a logical conjunction: ${\displaystyle x\in A\cap B}$ if and only if ${\displaystyle (x\in A)\wedge (x\in B)}$. Through this correspondence, set-theoretic intersection shares several properties with logical conjunction, such as

.

Natural language

As with other notions formalized in mathematical logic, the logical conjunction and is related to, but not the same as, the

grammatical conjunction

and in natural languages.

English "and" has properties not captured by logical conjunction. For example, "and" sometimes implies order having the sense of "then". For example, "They got married and had a child" in common discourse means that the marriage came before the child.

The word "and" can also imply a partition of a thing into parts, as "The American flag is red, white, and blue." Here, it is not meant that the flag is at once red, white, and blue, but rather that it has a part of each color.

See also

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Logical conjunction.

• "Conjunction", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]
• Wolfram MathWorld: Conjunction
• "Property and truth table of AND propositions". Archived from the original on May 6, 2017.