London
London | ||
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![]() ![]() London London (Earth) | ||
Coordinates: 51°30′26″N 0°7′39″W / 51.50722°N 0.12750°W UTC+1 (British Summer Time ) | ||
Postcode areas | ||
Area codes |
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Budget | £19.376 billion ($25 billion) GeoTLD .london | |
Website | www |
London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million.[1] It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a 50-mile (80 km) estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a major settlement for two millennia.[9] The City of London, its ancient core and financial centre, was founded by the Romans as Londinium and retains its medieval boundaries.[note 1][10] The City of Westminster, to the west of the City of London, has for centuries hosted the national government and parliament. Since the 19th century,[11] the name "London" has also referred to the metropolis around this core, historically split between the counties of Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Kent, and Hertfordshire,[12] which since 1965 has largely comprised Greater London,[13] which is governed by 33 local authorities and the Greater London Authority.[note 2][14]
As one of the world's major
London's diverse cultures encompass over 300 languages.[24] The mid-2018 population of Greater London of about 9 million[25] made it Europe's third-most populous city,[26] accounting for 13.4% of the population of the United Kingdom[27] and over 16% of the population of England. The Greater London Built-up Area is the fourth-most populous in Europe with about 9.8 million inhabitants at the 2011 census.[28][29] The London metropolitan area is the third-most populous in Europe with about 14 million inhabitants in 2016,[note 3][5][30] granting London the status of a megacity.
London has four
Toponymy
London is an ancient name, already attested in the first century AD, usually in the Latinised form Londinium;[34] for example, handwritten Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70–80 include the word Londinio ('in London').[35]
Over the years, the name has attracted many mythically based explanations. The earliest attested appears in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae, written around 1136.[34][36]
Modern scientific analyses of the name must account for the origins of the different forms found in early sources: Latin (usually Londinium), Old English (usually Lunden), and Welsh (usually Llundein), with reference to the known developments over time of sounds in those different languages. It is agreed that the name came into these languages from Common Brythonic; recent work tends to reconstruct the lost Celtic form of the name as *Londonjon or something similar. This was adapted into Latin as Londinium and borrowed into Old English.[37]
The toponymy of the Common Brythonic form is debated. Prominent was
Until 1889, the name "London" applied officially only to the City of London, but since then it has also referred to the County of London and to Greater London.[40]
In writing, "London" is occasionally contracted to "LDN".[41][42] Such usage originated in SMS language and often appears in a social media user profile, suffixing an alias or handle.
History
History of London |
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See also |
Prehistory
In 1993, remains of a Bronze Age bridge were found on the south foreshore upstream from Vauxhall Bridge.[43] This either crossed the Thames or reached a now-lost island in it. Two of the timbers were radiocarbon dated to 1750–1285 BCE.[43]
In 2010, foundations of a large timber structure, dated to 4800–4500 BCE,[44] were found on the Thames's south foreshore downstream from Vauxhall Bridge.[45] The function of the mesolithic structure is unclear. Both structures are on the south bank of the Thames, where the now-underground River Effra flows into the Thames.[45]
Roman London

Despite the evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area, the first major settlement was founded by the Romans about four years[2] after the invasion of 43 AD.[46] This only lasted until about 61 AD, when the Iceni tribe led by Queen Boudica stormed it and burnt it to the ground.[47] The next planned incarnation of Londinium prospered, superseding Colchester as capital of the Roman province of Britannia in 100. At its height in the 2nd century, Roman London had a population of about 60,000.[48]
Anglo-Saxon and Viking-period London
With the early 5th-century collapse of Roman rule, London ceased to be a capital and the walled city of

The
By the 11th century, London was clearly the largest town in England.
Middle Ages

After winning the
In the 12th century, the institutions of central government, which had hitherto followed the royal English court around the country, grew in size and sophistication and became increasingly fixed, for most purposes at Westminster, although the royal treasury, having been moved from Winchester, came to rest in the Tower. While the City of Westminster developed into a true governmental capital, its distinct neighbour, the City of London, remained England's largest city and principal commercial centre and flourished under its own unique administration, the Corporation of London. In 1100, its population was some 18,000; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000.[59] Disaster struck in the form of the Black Death in the mid-14th century, when London lost nearly a third of its population.[60] London was the focus of the Peasants' Revolt in 1381.[61]
London was also a centre of England's Jewish population before their expulsion by Edward I in 1290. Violence against Jews occurred in 1190, when it was rumoured that the new king had ordered their massacre after they had presented themselves at his coronation.[62] In 1264 during the Second Barons' War, Simon de Montfort's rebels killed 500 Jews while attempting to seize records of debts.[63]
Early modern
During the
Yet English maritime enterprise hardly reached beyond the seas of
In the 16th century,
By the end of the Tudor period in 1603, London was still compact. There was an assassination attempt on

In 1637, the government of
In the
London was plagued by disease in the early 17th century,[76] culminating in the Great Plague of 1665–1666, which killed up to 100,000 people, or a fifth of the population.[77]

The Great Fire of London broke out in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the city and quickly swept through the wooden buildings.[78] Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by polymath Robert Hooke as surveyor for the City of London.[79][80][81] In 1708 Christopher Wren's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral, was completed. During the Georgian era, new districts such as Mayfair were formed in the west; new bridges over the Thames encouraged development in South London. In the east, the Port of London expanded downstream. London's development as an international financial centre matured for much of the 18th century.[82]
In 1762,
Coffee-houses became a popular place to debate ideas, as growing literacy and development of the printing press made news widely available, with Fleet Street becoming the centre of the British press. The invasion of Amsterdam by Napoleonic armies led many financiers to relocate to London and the first London international issue was arranged in 1817. Around the same time, the Royal Navy became the world's leading war fleet, acting as a major deterrent to potential economic adversaries. The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 was specifically aimed at weakening Dutch economic power. London then overtook Amsterdam as the leading international financial centre.[88][89] According to Samuel Johnson:
You find no man, at all intellectual, who is willing to leave London. No, Sir, when a man is tired of London, he is tired of life; for there is in London all that life can afford.
— Samuel Johnson, 1777[90]
Late modern and contemporary
With the onset of the
From the early years of the 20th century onwards, teashops were found on High Streets across London and the rest of Britain, with Lyons, who opened the first of their chain of teashops in Piccadilly in 1894, leading the way.[98] The tearooms, such as the Criterion in Piccadilly, became a popular meeting place for women from the suffrage movement.[99] The city was the target of many attacks during the suffragette bombing and arson campaign, between 1912 and 1914, which saw historic landmarks such as Westminster Abbey and St Paul's Cathedral bombed.[100]

London was
The
Starting mainly in the mid-1960s, London became a centre for worldwide
Greater London's population declined in the decades after the Second World War, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s.[117] The principal ports for London moved downstream to Felixstowe and Tilbury, with the London Docklands area becoming a focus for regeneration, including the Canary Wharf development. This was born out of London's increasing role as an international financial centre in the 1980s.[118] The Thames Barrier was completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from the North Sea.[119]
The Greater London Council was abolished in 1986, leaving London with no central administration until 2000 and the creation of the
In 2008,
Administration
Local government
The administration of London is formed of two tiers: a citywide, strategic tier and a local tier. Citywide administration is coordinated by the
The headquarters of the GLA is
The
National government

London is the seat of the
Policing and crime
Policing in Greater London, with the exception of the City of London, is provided by the Metropolitan Police ("The Met"), overseen by the mayor through the Mayor's Office for Policing and Crime (MOPAC).[142][143] The Met is also referred to as Scotland Yard after the location of its original headquarters in a road called Great Scotland Yard in Whitehall. The City of London has its own police force – the City of London Police.[144] The British Transport Police are responsible for police services on National Rail, London Underground, Docklands Light Railway and Tramlink services.[145] The Ministry of Defence Police is a special police force in London, which does not generally become involved with policing the general public.[146]
Crime rates vary widely across different areas of London. Crime figures are made available nationally at
Recorded crime has been rising in London, notably violent crime and murder by stabbing and other means have risen. There were 50 murders from the start of 2018 to mid April 2018. Funding cuts to police in London are likely to have contributed to this, though other factors are also involved.[151]
Geography
Scope
Forty per cent of Greater London is covered by the
Further urban expansion is now prevented by the
Status
Within London, both the City of London and the City of Westminster have city status and both the City of London and the remainder of Greater London are counties for the purposes of lieutenancies.[161] The area of Greater London includes areas that are part of the historic counties of Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex and Hertfordshire.[162] London's status as the capital of England, and later the United Kingdom, has never been granted or confirmed by statute or in written form.[note 5]
Its status as a capital was established by
Topography

Greater London encompasses a total area of 611 square miles (1,583 km2) an area which had a population of 7,172,036 in 2001 and a population density of 11,760 inhabitants per square mile (4,542/km2). The extended area known as the London Metropolitan Region or the London Metropolitan Agglomeration, comprises a total area of 3,236 square miles (8,382 km2) has a population of 13,709,000 and a population density of 3,900 inhabitants per square mile (1,510/km2).[168]
Modern London stands on the Thames, its primary geographical feature, a navigable river which crosses the city from the south-west to the east. The Thames Valley is a flood plain surrounded by gently rolling hills including Parliament Hill, Addington Hills, and Primrose Hill. Historically London grew up at the lowest bridging point on the Thames. The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensive marshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their present width.[169]
Since the Victorian era the Thames has been extensively embanked, and many of its London tributaries now flow underground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding.[170] The threat has increased over time because of a slow but continuous rise in high water level caused by climate change and by the slow 'tilting' of the British Isles (up in Scotland and Northern Ireland and down in southern parts of England, Wales and Ireland) as a result of post-glacial rebound.[171][172]
In 1974 a decade of work began on the construction of the Thames Barrier across the Thames at Woolwich to deal with this threat. While the barrier is expected to function as designed until roughly 2070, concepts for its future enlargement or redesign are already being discussed.[173]
London has had a small number of earthquakes over the years, notably those of 1750 which macroseismic information indicates had their epicentres directly under the city. In 2018, two active faults were discovered running parallel to each other, directly under the centre of the city.[174] Furthermore, the city has been damaged at least twice (with fatalities) in the earthquakes of 1382 and 1580. Those earthquakes had their epicentres under the English Channel.[175] London's building code is being redrawn so that every new structure must be able to withstand an earthquake of at least 6.5 on the Richter scale.[176]
Climate
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London has a temperate
Temperature extremes in London range from 40.2 °C (104.4 °F) at Heathrow on 19 July 2022 down to −16.1 °C (3.0 °F) at Northolt on 1 January 1962.[183][184] Records for atmospheric pressure have been kept at London since 1692. The highest pressure ever reported is 1,049.8 millibars (31.00 inHg) on 20 January 2020.[185]
Summers are generally warm, sometimes hot. London's average July high is 23.5 °C (74.3 °F). On average each year, London experiences 31 days above 25 °C (77.0 °F) and 4.2 days above 30.0 °C (86.0 °F). During the 2003 European heat wave, prolonged heat led to hundreds of heat-related deaths.[186] There was also a previous spell of 15 consecutive days above 32.2 °C (90.0 °F) in England in 1976 which also caused many heat related deaths.[187] A previous temperature of 37.8 °C (100.0 °F) in August 1911 at the Greenwich station was later disregarded as non-standard.[188] Droughts can also, occasionally, be a problem, especially in summer, most recently in summer 2018,[189] and with much drier than average conditions prevailing from May to December.[190] However, the most consecutive days without rain was 73 days in the spring of 1893.[191]
Winters are generally cool with little temperature variation. Heavy snow is rare but snow usually falls at least once each winter. Spring and autumn can be pleasant. As a large city, London has a considerable urban heat island effect,[192] making the centre of London at times 5 °C (9 °F) warmer than the suburbs and outskirts. This can be seen below when comparing London Heathrow, 15 miles (24 km) west of London, with the London Weather Centre.[193]
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Record high °C (°F) | 17.2 (63.0) |
21.2 (70.2) |
24.5 (76.1) |
29.4 (84.9) |
32.8 (91.0) |
35.6 (96.1) |
40.2 (104.4) |
38.1 (100.6) |
35.0 (95.0) |
29.5 (85.1) |
21.1 (70.0) |
17.4 (63.3) |
40.2 (104.4) |
Average high °C (°F) | 8.4 (47.1) |
9.0 (48.2) |
11.7 (53.1) |
15.0 (59.0) |
18.4 (65.1) |
21.6 (70.9) |
23.9 (75.0) |
23.4 (74.1) |
20.2 (68.4) |
15.8 (60.4) |
11.5 (52.7) |
8.8 (47.8) |
15.7 (60.3) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 5.6 (42.1) |
5.8 (42.4) |
7.9 (46.2) |
10.5 (50.9) |
13.7 (56.7) |
16.8 (62.2) |
19.0 (66.2) |
18.7 (65.7) |
15.9 (60.6) |
12.3 (54.1) |
8.4 (47.1) |
5.9 (42.6) |
11.7 (53.1) |
Average low °C (°F) | 2.7 (36.9) |
2.7 (36.9) |
4.1 (39.4) |
6.0 (42.8) |
9.1 (48.4) |
12.0 (53.6) |
14.2 (57.6) |
14.1 (57.4) |
11.6 (52.9) |
8.8 (47.8) |
5.3 (41.5) |
3.1 (37.6) |
7.8 (46.0) |
Record low °C (°F) | −16.1 (3.0) |
−13.9 (7.0) |
−8.9 (16.0) |
−5.6 (21.9) |
−3.1 (26.4) |
−0.6 (30.9) |
3.9 (39.0) |
2.1 (35.8) |
1.4 (34.5) |
−5.5 (22.1) |
−7.1 (19.2) |
−17.4 (0.7) |
−17.4 (0.7) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 58.8 (2.31) |
45.0 (1.77) |
38.8 (1.53) |
42.3 (1.67) |
45.9 (1.81) |
47.3 (1.86) |
45.8 (1.80) |
52.8 (2.08) |
49.6 (1.95) |
65.1 (2.56) |
66.6 (2.62) |
57.1 (2.25) |
615.0 (24.21) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 11.5 | 9.5 | 8.5 | 8.8 | 8.0 | 8.3 | 7.9 | 8.4 | 7.9 | 10.8 | 11.2 | 10.8 | 111.7 |
Average relative humidity (%)
|
80 | 77 | 70 | 65 | 67 | 65 | 65 | 69 | 73 | 78 | 81 | 81 | 73 |
Average dew point °C (°F) | 3 (37) |
2 (36) |
2 (36) |
4 (39) |
7 (45) |
10 (50) |
12 (54) |
12 (54) |
10 (50) |
9 (48) |
6 (43) |
3 (37) |
7 (44) |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 61.1 | 78.8 | 124.5 | 176.7 | 207.5 | 208.4 | 217.8 | 202.1 | 157.1 | 115.2 | 70.7 | 55.0 | 1,674.8 |
Percent possible sunshine | 23 | 28 | 31 | 40 | 41 | 41 | 42 | 45 | 40 | 35 | 27 | 21 | 35 |
Average ultraviolet index | 1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 3 |
Source 1: Met Office[194][195][196] Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute[197][198] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Weather Atlas (percent sunshine and UV Index)[199] CEDA Archive[200] TORRO[201] Time and Date[202]
See Climate of London for additional climate information. |
- ^ Averages are taken from Heathrow, and extremes are taken from stations across London.
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Record high °C (°F) | 16.8 (62.2) |
19.7 (67.5) |
23.3 (73.9) |
25.3 (77.5) |
29.0 (84.2) |
34.5 (94.1) |
35.3 (95.5) |
37.5 (99.5) |
30.2 (86.4) |
26.1 (79.0) |
18.9 (66.0) |
16.4 (61.5) |
37.5 (99.5) |
Average high °C (°F) | 8.5 (47.3) |
9.2 (48.6) |
12.1 (53.8) |
15.4 (59.7) |
18.6 (65.5) |
21.4 (70.5) |
23.8 (74.8) |
23.3 (73.9) |
20.3 (68.5) |
15.8 (60.4) |
11.6 (52.9) |
8.9 (48.0) |
15.3 (59.5) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 5.9 (42.6) |
6.2 (43.2) |
8.4 (47.1) |
10.7 (51.3) |
13.8 (56.8) |
16.7 (62.1) |
18.8 (65.8) |
18.7 (65.7) |
15.9 (60.6) |
12.4 (54.3) |
8.8 (47.8) |
6.3 (43.3) |
11.9 (53.4) |
Average low °C (°F) | 3.4 (38.1) |
3.2 (37.8) |
4.7 (40.5) |
6.0 (42.8) |
9.1 (48.4) |
12.0 (53.6) |
13.9 (57.0) |
14.1 (57.4) |
11.6 (52.9) |
9.0 (48.2) |
6.1 (43.0) |
3.8 (38.8) |
8.1 (46.6) |
Record low °C (°F) | −12.7 (9.1) |
−9.4 (15.1) |
−6.7 (19.9) |
−4.8 (23.4) |
−1.0 (30.2) |
1.1 (34.0) |
5.0 (41.0) |
5.3 (41.5) |
1.1 (34.0) |
−2.1 (28.2) |
−8.0 (17.6) |
−10.5 (13.1) |
−12.7 (9.1) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 43.9 (1.73) |
39.9 (1.57) |
36.5 (1.44) |
38.6 (1.52) |
44.0 (1.73) |
49.3 (1.94) |
36.3 (1.43) |
53.0 (2.09) |
52.4 (2.06) |
58.3 (2.30) |
59.9 (2.36) |
50.7 (2.00) |
562.9 (22.16) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 10.5 | 9.2 | 7.9 | 8.1 | 7.9 | 7.8 | 7.1 | 8.2 | 7.9 | 10.3 | 10.6 | 10.2 | 105.6 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 44.4 | 66.1 | 109.7 | 152.9 | 198.7 | 198.6 | 209.2 | 198.0 | 140.6 | 99.7 | 58.5 | 50.1 | 1,526.4 |
Source 1: Met Office[203][204][205] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Starlings Roost Weather[206][207] |
Areas

Places within London's vast urban area are identified using area names, such as Mayfair, Southwark, Wembley, and Whitechapel. These are either informal designations, reflect the names of villages that have been absorbed by sprawl, or are superseded administrative units such as parishes or former boroughs.
Such names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character, but without official boundaries. Since 1965, Greater London has been divided into 32
The
The
Architecture

London's buildings are too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style, partly because of their varying ages. Many grand houses and public buildings, such as the National Gallery, are constructed from Portland stone. Some areas of the city, particularly those just west of the centre, are characterised by white stucco or whitewashed buildings. Few structures in central London pre-date the Great Fire of 1666, these being a few trace Roman remains, the Tower of London and a few scattered Tudor survivors in the city. Further out is, for example, the Tudor-period Hampton Court Palace, England's oldest surviving Tudor palace, built by Cardinal Thomas Wolsey in about 1515.[216]

Part of the varied architectural heritage are the 17th-century churches by Wren, neoclassical financial institutions such as the Royal Exchange and the Bank of England, to the early 20th century Old Bailey and the 1960s Barbican Estate.
The 1939


In the dense areas, most of the concentration is via medium- and high-rise buildings. London's skyscrapers, such as
Other notable modern buildings include
Cityscape
London is home to many museums, galleries, and other institutions, many of which are free of admission charges and are major tourist attractions as well as playing a research role. The first of these to be established was the British Museum in Bloomsbury, in 1753.[467] Originally containing antiquities, natural history specimens, and the national library, the museum now has 7 million artefacts from around the globe. In 1824, the National Gallery was founded to house the British national collection of Western paintings; this now occupies a prominent position in Trafalgar Square.[468]
The
In the latter half of the 19th century the locale of
Music
London is one of the major classical and

London has numerous venues for rock and pop concerts, including the world's busiest indoor venue,
The city is home to the original Hard Rock Cafe and the Abbey Road Studios, where The Beatles recorded many of their hits. In the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, musicians and groups like Elton John, Pink Floyd, David Bowie, Queen, The Kinks, Cliff Richard, The Rolling Stones, The Who, Eric Clapton, Led Zeppelin, Iron Maiden, T. Rex, Fleetwood Mac, Elvis Costello, Dire Straits, Cat Stevens, The Police, The Cure, Madness, Culture Club, Dusty Springfield, Phil Collins, Rod Stewart, Status Quo and Sade, derived their sound from the streets and rhythms of London.[480][481]
London was instrumental in the development of
Recreation
Parks and open spaces

A 2013 report by the
Close to Hyde Park are smaller Royal Parks,
Close to Richmond Park is
Walking

Other
Sport
London has hosted the Summer Olympics three times: in 1908, 1948, and 2012,[508][509] making it the first city to host the modern Games three times.[33] The city was also the host of the British Empire Games in 1934.[510] In 2017, London hosted the World Championships in Athletics for the first time.[511]
London's most popular sport is football, and it has seven clubs in the Premier League in the 2022–23 season: Arsenal, Brentford, Chelsea, Crystal Palace, Fulham, Tottenham Hotspur, and West Ham United.[512] Other professional men's teams in London are AFC Wimbledon, Barnet, Bromley, Charlton Athletic, Dagenham & Redbridge, Leyton Orient, Millwall, Queens Park Rangers and Sutton United. Four London-based teams are in the Women's Super League: Arsenal, Chelsea, Tottenham and West Ham United.
From 1924, the original
Three
While
.One of London's best-known annual sports competitions is the Wimbledon Tennis Championships, held at the All England Club in the south-western suburb of Wimbledon since 1877.[518] Played in late June to early July, it is the oldest tennis tournament in the world and widely considered the most prestigious.[519][520][521] Founded in London in 1881, Slazenger has provided tennis balls for Wimbledon since 1902, the oldest sponsorship in sport.[522]
London has two
Notable people
See also
Notes
- ^ See also: Independent city § National capitals
- ^ The Greater London Authority consists of the Mayor of London and the London Assembly. The London Mayor is distinguished from the Lord Mayor of London, who heads the City of London Corporation running the City of London.
- Larger Urban Zonein the EU. Eurostat uses the sum of the populations of the contiguous urban core and the surrounding commuting zone as its definition.
- ^ London is not a city in the usual UK sense of having city status granted by the Crown.
- ^ According to the Collins English Dictionary definition of 'the seat of government',[163] London is not the capital of England, as England does not have its own government. According to the Oxford English Reference Dictionary[164] definition of 'the most important town' and many other authorities.[165]
- ^ Imperial College London was a constituent college of the University of London between 1908 and 2007. Degrees during this time were awarded by the federal university; however, the college now issues its own degrees.
References
- ^ a b c "Population and household estimates, England and Wales: Census 2021". ons.gov.uk. Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 15 October 2022.
- ^ a b Number 1 Poultry (ONE 94), Museum of London Archaeology, 2013. Archaeology Data Service, The University of York.
- ^ "London weather map". The Met Office. Archived from the original on 3 August 2018. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
- ^ "2011 Census – Built-up areas". ONS. Retrieved 15 October 2022.
- ^ a b "Metropolitan Area Populations". Eurostat. 18 June 2019. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
- ^ Fenton, Trevor. "Regional economic activity by gross domestic product, UK: 1998 to 2020". ons.gov.uk.
- ^ "The Greater London Authority Consolidated Budget and Component Budgets for 2021–22" (PDF).
- ^ Sub-national HDI. "Area Database – Global Data Lab". hdi.globaldatalab.org.
- ^ "Roman London". Museum of London. n.d. Archived from the original on 22 March 2008.
- ^ Fowler, Joshua (5 July 2013). "London Government Act: Essex, Kent, Surrey and Middlesex 50 years on". BBC News.
- ^ Mills, AD (2010). Dictionary of London Place Names. Oxford University Press. p. 152.
Of course until relatively recent times the name London referred only to the City of London with even Westminster remaining a separate entity. But when the County of London was created in 1888, the name often came to be rather loosely used for this much larger area, which was also sometimes referred to as Greater London from about this date. However, in 1965 Greater London was newly defined as a much enlarged area.
- ^ "The baffling map of England's counties". BBC News. 25 April 2014. Retrieved 25 September 2021.
- ^ "London Government Act 1963". legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved 26 September 2021.
- ISBN 978-1-4058-2411-8.
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- ^ "About Lord's—the home of cricket — official website". MCC. 2008. Archived from the original on 5 May 2011. Retrieved 29 April 2008.
- ^ "The Brit Oval — Official Website". Surrey CCC. 2008. Archived from the original on 7 March 2009. Retrieved 29 April 2008.
- ^ "Lord's (Cricket Grounds)". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
- ^ "Flora London Marathon 2008". London Marathon Ltd. Archived from the original on 26 April 2008. Retrieved 29 April 2008.
- ^ "The Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race — Official Website". The Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 29 April 2008.
Bibliography
- Ackroyd, Peter (2001). ISBN 978-0-09-942258-7.
- Mills, David (2001). Dictionary of London Place Names. Oxford Paperbacks. OCLC 45406491.
External links
- London.gov.uk – Greater London Authority
- VisitLondon.com – official tourism site
- Museum of London
- Muirhead, James Fullarton (1922). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 31 (12th ed.).
- London in British History Online, with links to numerous authoritative online sources
- "London", In Our Time, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Peter Ackroyd, Claire Tomalin and Iain Sinclair (28 September 2000)
Geographic data related to London at OpenStreetMap
- Old maps of London, from the Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, National Library of Israel