Crab-eating macaque
Crab-eating macaque | |
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Phang Nga, Thailand | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Primates |
Suborder: | Haplorhini |
Infraorder: | Simiiformes |
Family: | Cercopithecidae |
Genus: | Macaca |
Species: | M. fascicularis
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Binomial name | |
Macaca fascicularis Raffles, 1821
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Crab-eating macaque range | |
Synonyms[2][3][4][5] | |
The crab-eating macaque (Macaca fascicularis), also known as the long-tailed macaque and referred to as the cynomolgus monkey in laboratories,[1] is a cercopithecine primate native to Southeast Asia. A species of macaque, the crab-eating macaque has a long history alongside humans.[6] The species has been variously seen as an agricultural pest,[7] a sacred animal,[8] and, more recently, the subject of medical experiments.[6]
The crab-eating macaque lives in matrilineal social groups of up to eight individuals dominated by females.[9] Male members leave the group when they reach puberty.[10] It is an opportunistic omnivore[11] and has been documented using tools to obtain food in Thailand and Myanmar.[12] The crab-eating macaque is a known invasive species and a threat to biodiversity in several locations, including Hong Kong and western New Guinea.[1] The significant overlap in macaque and human living space has resulted in greater habitat loss,[6] synanthropic living, and inter- and intraspecies conflicts over resources.
Etymology
Macaca comes from the Portuguese word macaco, which was derived from makaku, a word in Ibinda, a language of Central Africa (kaku means monkey in Ibinda).[13] The specific epithet fascicularis is Latin for a small band or stripe. Sir Thomas Raffles, who gave the animal its scientific name in 1821, did not specify what he meant by the use of this word.
In Indonesia and Malaysia, the crab-eating macaque and other macaque species are known generically as kera, possibly because of their high-pitched cries.[14]
The crab-eating macaque has several common names. It is often referred to as the long-tailed macaque due to its tail, which is often longer than its body.[15] The name crab-eating macaque refers to its being often seen foraging beaches for crabs. Another common name for M. fascicularis is the cynomolgus monkey, from the name of a race of humans with long hair and handsome beards who used dogs for hunting according to Aristophanes of Byzantium, who seemingly derived the etymology of the word cynomolgus from the Greek κύων, cyon 'dog' (gen. cyno-s) and the verb ἀμέλγειν, amelgein 'to milk' (adj. amolg-os), by claiming that they milked female dogs.[16] This name is commonly used in laboratory settings.
Taxonomy
The 10 subspecies of M. fascicularis are:
- Common long-tailed macaque, M. f. fascicularis
- Burmese long-tailed macaque, M. f. aurea
- Nicobar long-tailed macaque, M. f. umbrosa
- Dark-crowned long-tailed macaque, M. f. atriceps
- Con Song long-tailed macaque, M. f. condorensis
- Simeulue long-tailed macaque, M. f. fusca
- Lasia long-tailed macaque, M. f. lasiae
- Maratua long-tailed macaque, M. f. tua
- Kemujan long-tailed macaque, M. f. karimondjawae
- Philippine long-tailed macaque, M. f. philippensis [17]
Characteristics
The body length of the adult, which varies among subspecies, is 38–55 cm (15–22 in) with relatively short arms and legs. Males are considerably larger than females, weighing 5–9 kg (11–20 lb) compared to the 3–6 kg (6.6–13.2 lb) of females.
Distribution and habitat
The crab-eating macaque's native range encompasses most of mainland
Introduced range
The crab-eating macaque is an introduced alien species in several countries, including
Where it is not a native species, particularly on island ecosystems whose species often evolved in isolation from large predators, it is a documented threat to many native species. The immunovaccine porcine zona pellucida (PZP), which causes infertility in females, is currently being tested in Hong Kong to investigate its use as potential population control.[18]
Behavior and ecology
Group living
Macaques live in
The social groups of macaques are female-bonded, meaning the males will disperse at the time of
In addition to the matrilineal dominance hierarchy, male dominance rankings also exist.
Increasing group size leads to increased competition and energy spent trying to forage for resources, and in particular, food. Further, social tensions build and the prevalence of tension-reducing interactions like social grooming fall with larger groups. Thus, group living appears to be maintained solely due to the safety against predation.[25]
Crab-eating macaques sometimes form mixed species groups with other primate species, including the
Conflict
Group living in all species is dependent on the tolerance of other group members. In crab-eating macaques, successful social group living requires postconflict resolution. Usually, less dominant individuals lose to a higher-ranking individual when conflict arises. After the conflict has taken place, lower-ranking individuals tend to fear the winner of the conflict to a greater degree. In one study, this was seen in the ability to drink water together. Postconflict observations showed a staggered time between when the dominant individual begins to drink and the subordinate. Long-term studies reveal the gap in drinking time closes as the conflict moves further into the past.[27]
Grooming and support in conflict among primates is considered to be an act of reciprocal altruism. In crab-eating macaques, an experiment was performed in which individuals were given the opportunity to groom one another under three conditions: after being groomed by the other, after grooming the other, and without prior grooming. After grooming took place, the individual that received the grooming was much more likely to support their groomer than one that had not previously groomed that individual. These results support the reciprocal altruism theory of grooming in long-tailed macaques.[28]
Crab-eating macaques demonstrate two of the three forms of suggested postconflict behavior. In both captive and wild studies, the monkeys demonstrated reconciliation, or an affiliative interaction between former opponents, and redirection, or acting aggressively towards a third individual. Consolation was not seen in any study performed.[29]
Postconflict anxiety has been reported in crab-eating macaques that have acted as the aggressor. After a conflict within a group, the aggressor appears to scratch itself at a higher rate than before the conflict. Though the scratching behavior cannot definitely be termed as an anxious behavior, evidence suggests this is the case. An aggressor's scratching decreases significantly after reconciliation. This suggests reconciliation rather than a property of the conflict is the cause of the reduction in scratching behavior. Though these results seem counterintuitive, the anxiety of the aggressor appears to have a basis in the risks of ruining cooperative relationships with the opponent.[30]
Kin altruism and spite
In a study, a group of crab-eating macaques was given ownership of a food object. Adult females favored their own offspring by passively, yet preferentially, allowing them to feed on the objects they held. When juveniles were in possession of an object, mothers robbed them and acted aggressively at an increased rate towards their own offspring compared to other juveniles. These observations suggest close proximity influences behavior in ownership, as a mother's kin are closer to her on average. When given a nonfood object and two owners, one being a kin and one not, the rival will choose the older individual to attack regardless of kinship. Though the hypothesis remains that mother-juvenile relationships may facilitate social learning of ownership, the combined results clearly point to aggression towards the least-threatening individual.[31]
A study was conducted in which food was given to 11 females. They were then given a choice to share the food with kin or nonkin. The kin altruism hypothesis suggests the mothers would preferentially give food to their own offspring. Yet eight of the 11 females did not discriminate between kin and nonkin. The remaining three did, in fact, give more food to their kin. The results suggest it was not kin selection, but instead spite that fueled feeding kin preferentially. This is due to the observation that food was given to kin for a significantly longer period of time than needed. The benefit to the mother is decreased due to less food availability for herself and the cost remains great for nonkin due to not receiving food. If these results are correct, crab-eating macaques are unique in the animal kingdom, as they appear not only to behave according to the kin selection theory, but also act spitefully toward one another.[32]
Reproduction
After a
Male crab-eating macaques groom females to increase the chance of mating. A female is more likely to engage in sexual activity with a male that has recently groomed her than with one that has not.[34]
Diet
Despite its name, the crab-eating macaque typically does not consume crabs; rather, it is an opportunistic omnivore, eating a variety of animals and plants. Although fruits and seeds make up 60 - 90% of its diet, it also eat leaves, flowers, roots, and bark.[11] It sometimes preys on vertebrates, including bird chicks, nesting female birds, lizards, frogs, and fish, invertebrates, and bird eggs. In Indonesia, it has become a proficient swimmer and diver for crabs and other crustaceans in mangrove swamps.[citation needed] In Bukit Timah, Singapore its diet consists of 44% fruit, 27% animal matter, 15% flowers and other plant matter, and 14% food provided by humans.[35]
The crab-eating macaque exhibits particularly low tolerance for swallowing seeds. Despite its inability to digest seeds, many primates of similar size swallow large seeds, up to 25 mm (0.98 in), and simply defecate them whole. The crab-eating macaque, though, spits seeds out if they are larger than 3–4 mm (0.12–0.16 in). This decision to spit seeds is thought to be adaptive; it avoids filling the monkey's stomach with wasteful bulky seeds that cannot be used for energy.[36] It also can help the plants by distributing seeds to new areas: Crab-eating macaques eat durians, such as Durio graveolens and D. zibethinus, and are a major seed disperser for the latter species.[37]
Although the crab-eating macaque is ecologically well-adapted and poses no threat to population stability of prey species in its native range, in areas where it is not native, it can pose a substantial threat to biodiversity.[38] Some believe the crab-eating macaque is responsible for the extinction of forest birds by threatening critical breeding areas [39] as well as eating the eggs and chicks of endangered forest birds.[18]
The crab-eating macaque can become a synanthrope, living off human resources. It feeds in cultivated fields on young dry rice, cassava leaves, rubber fruit, taro plants, coconuts, mangos, and other crops, often causing significant losses to local farmers. In villages, towns, and cities, it frequently takes food from garbage cans and refuse piles.[7] It can become unafraid of humans in these conditions, which can lead to macaques directly taking food from people, both passively and aggressively.[40][41]
Tool use
In Thailand and Myanmar, crab-eating macaques
Another instance of tool use is washing and rubbing foods, such as sweet potatoes, cassava roots, and papaya leaves, before consumption. Crab-eating macaques either soak these foods in water or rub them through their hands as if to clean them. They also peel the sweet potatoes, using their incisors and canine teeth. Adolescents appear to acquire these behaviors by observational learning of older individuals.[43]
Relationship with humans
Crab-eating macaques extensively overlap with humans across their range in Southeast Asia. Consequently, they live together in many locations. Some of these areas are associated with religious sites and local customs, such as the temples of
The macaques have also developed a reputation[46] for actively stealing items from humans (cameras, eyeglasses, hats, etc.), then refusing to return their stolen goods until given food in return.[47] This unique form of kleptoparasitism (known as "robbing and bartering") has primarily been observed in smaller groups of macaques living near Hindu temples and tourist-heavy areas, suggesting it is a learned behaviour within social groups, in response to realizing that humans would trade food for their possessions back.[48]
In scientific research
M. fascicularis is also used extensively in medical experiments, in particular those connected with
The use of crab-eating macaques and other nonhuman primates in experimentation is controversial with critics charging that the experiments are cruel, unnecessary and lead to dubious findings.[49] One of the most well known examples of experiments on crab-eating macaques is the 1981 Silver Spring monkeys case.[50]
In 2014, 21,768 crab-eating macaques were imported in the United States to be used in experimentation.[51]
Conservation status
The crab-eating macaque has the third-largest range of any primate species, behind only humans and
Each subspecies faces differing levels of threats, and too little information is available on some subspecies to assess their conditions. The M. f. umbrosa subspecies is likely of important biological significance and has been recommended as a candidate for protection in the Nicobar Islands, where its small, native population has been seriously fragmented,[54] and is listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List.[1] The Philippine long-tailed macaque (M. f. philippensis) is listed as near threatened, and M. f. condorensis is vulnerable.[1] All other subspecies are listed as data deficient and need further study;[1] although recent work is showing M. f. aurea and M. f. karimondjawae need increased protection.[54] One concern for conservation is, in areas where M. fascicularis is not native, their populations need to be monitored and managed to reduce their impact on native flora and fauna.[54]
Abuse scandal
In June 2023, BBC exposed a global online network of sadists who shared videos of baby long-tailed macaques being tortured by caretakers in Indonesia. There were many torture methods, from teasing the primates with baby bottles to killing them in blenders, sawing them in half, or cutting off their tails and limbs. Enthusiasts would pay for the caretakers to film videos torturing the macaques. Investigation has led to some prisons and police searches in both Indonesia and the United States, where many of the torture enthusiasts were located.[55][56]
Genome
NCBI genome ID | 776 |
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Ploidy | diploid |
Genome size | 2,946.84 Mb |
Number of chromosomes | 21 pairs |
The genome of the crab-eating macaque has been sequenced.
Clones
On 24 January 2018, scientists in China reported in the journal Cell the creation of two crab-eating macaque clones, named Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua, using the complex DNA transfer method that produced Dolly the sheep.[57][58][59][60][61] This makes Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua the first primates to be cloned using the somatic cell nuclear transfer method.
See also
- Maggie the Macaque
- Prostitution among animals
References
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- ^ Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema naturæ. Regnum animale (Tenth ed.). Sumptibus Guilielmi Engelmann. p. 27.
- ^ Napier, P. H.; Groves, C. P. (1983). "Simia fascicularis Raffles, 1821 (Mammalia, Primates): request for the suppression under the plenary powers of Simia aygula Linnaeus, 1758, a senior synonym. Z.N.(S.) 2399". Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature. 40 (2): 117–118. Retrieved 19 November 2012.
- ^ Smith, J. D. D. (2001). "Supplement 1986-2000" (PDF). Official List and Indexes of Names and Works in Zoology. International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature. p. 8. Retrieved 19 November 2012.
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- ^ a b c d e f g Gumert, MD; Fuentes A; Jones-Engel, L. (2011). Monkeys on the Edge: Ecology and Management of Long-tailed Macaques and their Interface with Humans. Cambridge University Press.
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- ^ a b "Island of the Monkey God". Off the Fence. Archived from the original on 2013-09-28. Retrieved 2013-09-25.
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- ^ a b c Bonadio, C. (2000). "Macaca fascicularis". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 26 September 2013.
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- ^ Zimmer, Benjamin. "Makaku, macaco, macaque, macaca". Language Log. Retrieved 2013-09-26.
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- ^ a b c d Cawthon Lang, Kristina. "Primate Factsheets: Long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) Taxonomy, Morphology, & Ecology". Primate Info Net. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
- ^ Aristophanes of Byzantium, Tῶν Ἀριστοτέλους περί ζώων ἐπιτομή. ΑΠΑΝΤΑ Ι, 2.59. ΚΑΚΤΟΣ 1998.
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- ^ Lowe, S. "100 Of The World's Worst Invasive Species" (PDF). Invasive Species Specialist Group. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 March 2017. Retrieved 26 September 2013.
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- ^ Baider, C.; Florens, F.B.V. (2006). "Current decline of the Dodo Tree: a case of broken-down interactions with extinct species or the result of new interactions with alien invaders". In Laurance, W.F.; Peres, C.A. (eds.). Emerging Threats to Tropical Forests. Chicago University Press. pp. 199–214.
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- ^ Richer, N. "Wild Facts". Wild Fact #834 – The Perfect Gift – Crab-Eating Macaque. Retrieved 26 September 2013.
- ^ Hazan, T. "Crab-eating Macaque (Macaca fascicularis)". Introduced Species Summary Project. Columbia University. Retrieved 26 September 2013.
- ^ "Macaca fascicularis, Crab-eating macaque". Thai National Parks. Retrieved 2021-01-29.
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External links
- Bonadio, C. 2000. "Macaca fascicularis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed March 10, 2006.
- Primate Info Net Macaca fascicularis Factsheet
- ISSG Database: Ecology of Macaca fascicularis
- Primate Info Net: Macaca fascicularis
- BBC Factfile on M. fascicularis
- "Conditions at Nafovanny", video produced by the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection following an undercover investigation at a captive-breeding facility for long-tailed macaques in Vietnam.
- View the macFas5 genome assembly in the UCSC Genome Browser.