Long Island Sound

Coordinates: 41°05′48″N 72°52′52″W / 41.09667°N 72.88111°W / 41.09667; -72.88111
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Long Island Sound, highlighted in pink between Connecticut (to the north) and Long Island (to the south)

Long Island Sound is a

freshwater from tributaries, and saltwater from the Atlantic Ocean
, Long Island Sound is 21 mi (34 km) at its widest point and varies in depth from 65 to 230 feet (20 to 70 m).

Shoreline

Long Island Sound at night as seen from space[1]
Part of a series on
Long Island
Topics
Regions
  • North Fork
  • South Fork

Major Connecticut cities on the Sound include

Bronx in New York City
.

Climate and geography

The climate of Long Island Sound is warm temperate or Cfa in the Köppen climate classification. Summers are hot and humid often with convective showers and strong sunshine, while the cooler months feature cold temperatures and a mix of rain and occasional snow.

Glacial history

About 18,000 years ago, Connecticut, Long Island Sound, and much of Long Island were covered by a thick sheet of ice, part of the Late

Wisconsin Glacier. About 3,300 feet (1,000 m) thick in its interior and about 1,300 to 1,600 feet (400 to 500 m) thick along its southern edge, it was the most recent of a series of glaciations that covered the area during the past 10 million years. Sea level at that time was about 330 feet (100 m) lower than today.[2]

The continental ice sheet scraped off an average of 65 feet (20 m) of surface material from the New England landscape, then deposited the material (known as

recessional moraines
) to the north were created just on and off the Connecticut coast. These moraines, created by much smaller deposits (probably from equilibrium states that were much shorter in time) are discontinuous and much smaller than those to the south. The Connecticut coast moraines are in two groups: the Norwalk area and the Madison-Old Saybrook area. Sandy plains and beaches resulted from the erosion of moraines and redeposition in these areas, and to the east of each, where the drift cover is thinnest, exposed bedrock, creating rocky headlands, often with marshlands behind them.[2]

The Captain Islands off Greenwich, Connecticut, along with the Norwalk Islands and Falkner Island off Guilford, Connecticut, are parts of a recessional moraine. Other islands, including the Thimble Islands, are for the most part exposed bedrock with a thin amount of drift, often not continuous. Other shoals and islands off the Connecticut coast are a mixture of these two extremes. The glacier also created several sandy outwash deltas off the coast, including one off Bridgeport, Connecticut, and another off New Haven, Connecticut. Fishers Island, New York, appears to be related to the Harbor Hill Moraine. To the east of the Thimble Islands, inland moraines along the Connecticut coast include the broken Madison Moraine and the Old Saybrook Moraine.[2]

The Long Island Sound basin existed before the glaciers came. It probably had been formed by stream flows. A relatively thick cover of sand and gravel (termed

outwash) was left in the basin from glacial meltwater streams. On the west, a ridge rising to about 65 feet (20 m) below the present sea level is called the Mattatuck Sill. Its lowest point is about 80 feet (24 m) below sea level. Glacial meltwater formed "Lake Connecticut", a freshwater lake in the basin, until about 8,000 years ago, when the sea level rose to about 80 feet (24 m) below today's level. Seawater then overflowed into the basin, transforming it from a nontidal, freshwater lake to a tidal, saline arm of the sea.[2]

Rivers

The Watershed of Long Island Sound includes nearly all of Connecticut and Western Massachusetts, large swathes of Vermont, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island along with relatively small areas of New York state. (The map is miscolored in two places: the area called "5" is part of the watershed, as is the area called "9" on Long Island; the line dividing Long Island is the southerly limit of the watershed, which includes only a small fraction of the island, along the northern coast)

Numerous rivers empty into the Sound, including:

Connecticut

New York

Rhode Island

Watershed demographics

Historical population
CensusPop.Note%±
1800567,470—
18501,000,660—
19002,442,150—
19506,021,880—
19708,037,310—
19807,799,300−3.0%
20008,626,920—
20108,934,0943.6%
Long Island Watershed Population
(data taken from US Census)

The whole watershed population is about 8.93 million as of the 2010 Census.[3] Due to extent of the Connecticut River, many riverside cities and towns are included in the Long Island Sound watershed. The largest towns and cities from south to north, west to east are:[4]

New York

Connecticut

Rhode Island

Massachusetts

Vermont

New Hampshire

Fauna and flora

Flora

Seaweed

Seaweeds in the Sound occur in greatest abundance in rocky areas between high tide and low tide as well as on rocks on the sea floor. Green seaweed populations fluctuate with the seasons. Monostroma, reproduces in the early spring and dies out by late summer. Grinnellia appears in August and disappears four to six weeks later.[5]

In the rocky areas of the intertidal zone there are the seaweeds characterized by their brown tone, Fucus and Ascophyllum, some species of which have air bladders that allow them to float and receive direct sunlight even at high tide. Also present are Ectocarpus and red algas Polysiphonia, Neosiphonia, Porphyra and Chondrus (Irish moss).[5]

In the marshy areas of the intertidal zone can be found

Ulva (sea lettuce) and Codium.[5]

In the subtidal zone (below low tide) are Palmaria palmata a red alga, along with two algae, Laminaria (kelp) and Chorda. Kelp can often be found washed up on the beach, and individual specimens are not uncommonly a yard or two long. Deeper in the subtidal zone are red algae such as Spermothamnion, Antithamnion and Callithamnion, which also often float freely.[5]

In tidal pools can be found red or pink colored

Ulva.[5]

Plants found in tidal marshes

Tidal marshes are some of the most productive biological systems in the world. Along the sound, they produce three to seven tons per acre per year of vegetation, largely in the form of salt marsh grasses. Much of this, enriched by decomposition, is flushed yearly into the estuary water where it directly contributes to the great finfish and shellfish production of the sound.[5]

Salt marsh plants

Salt water cordgrass (

Spartina patens) and spikegrass (Distichlis spicata) grow in areas less frequently inundated by saltwater, typically closer to dry land. A short form of salt water cordgrass can sometimes be found in the depressions (pannes) in the higher areas where salt water collects and evaporates, leaving water even higher in salinity than seawater.[5]

Other plants in the pannes are

marsh elder
.

Cattail marshes

In areas where the Sound's salt water is more diluted with freshwater from rivers, including along the shores of the larger river estuaries such as the Connecticut River, cattail marshes replace salt marshes. Various types of grasses, including wild rice, and sedges, including bulrushes, are found here.

Eelgrass meadows

brant, a type of goose. During the 1930s, the Long Island Sound was struck by an outbreak of a mold infection known as "eelgrass wasting disease". As a result, most of the eelgrass that grew in the sound was killed off, and as an extension, populations of wildlife in the area that depended upon the eelgrass either as food or as a habitat went into a sharp decline. During the succeeding decades, areas along the Connecticut coast saw a slow gradual recovery of eelgrass populations. Unfortunately, the north shore of Long Island did not see much success, and efforts have been made to re-introduce eelgrass by planting it, especially in the eastern part of the Long Island Sound in the waters of Suffolk County. It is unlikely that the Long Island Sound will experience a complete recovery of its eelgrass population because there are still occasional outbreaks of eelgrass wasting disease within the Sound.[5]

Plants found on beaches and dunes

Few undisturbed beach and dune systems exist on the Connecticut shore, the ones that do are located along the eastern portion of the coastline (east of the Connecticut River).

beach rose. Rare species found on the landward side are beach knotweed and sand false heather
.

Upland vegetation

In areas next to the shoreline but hardly ever salty, the sound's environment can nevertheless be a crucial factor in the presence of certain species. Areas near the Connecticut shore are the northern limit for some species needing the warmer environment provided by proximity to the Sound (which has a longer growing season than inland Connecticut and winters that are less harsh). These include

post oak and persimmon, which only exist in Connecticut along the shore. For many species which grow typically in sandy soils, the Connecticut shore is the northern limit.[5]

Mature upland vegetation along the Connecticut coast is mostly hardwood forest, with dominant tree species including oaks and hickories, especially

bramble and bittersweet, and the shrubs blueberry, huckleberry, viburnum and hazelnut.[5]

Along with the moderate climate, tropical cyclones can have an important impact on observable vegetation patterns. The greatest storms to hit the Sound in the twentieth century were the 1938 hurricane, the 1955 hurricane, Hurricane Belle in 1976, Hurricane Gloria in 1985, Hurricane Irene in 2011, and Hurricane Sandy in 2012. After Hurricane Belle, leaves near the coast were badly salt-burned, then turned brown and shriveled. Many trees were downed by the storm, leaving openings in the forest cover, promoting the growth of vines and shrubs.[5]

Fauna

See also: List of animals of Long Island Sound

Fish

The Sound is inhabited by both marine fish and anadromous fish (oceanic or estuarine species that spawn in freshwater streams and rivers, see fish migration).[8]

2 men, one is napping, and a boy fishing from a skiff using light tackle
James Goodwyn Clonney, Fishing Party on Long Island Sound off New Rochelle, 1847

The most common marine fish in the Sound include

smooth dogfish.[8]

Mollusks

northern moon snail, Atlantic moon snail, the channeled and knobbed whelks.[9]

Crustacea

Japanese shore crab, an invasive species, was the most commonly found crab in the sound.[10]

The sand shrimp

grass shrimp are plentiful along the shore, especially in late summer and fall. The American lobster is fished commercially.[10]

Mammals, reptiles, and amphibians

Most animal species on the Connecticut side of the Sound also occur inland, but some are much more abundant along the shore. Animals along the Sound are most concentrated in the salt marshes. Two species of

finback whale beached itself in Groton.[11]

Diamondback terrapins (Malaclemys terrapin) are the only aquatic turtles to reside in brackish water, which makes the Long Island Sound estuary a special habitat for the Northern subspecies.

Animals that need moist woodlands are found in the coastal area (and elsewhere), including the diamondback terrapin in salt marshes and brackish waters (and deposits and hatches its eggs on nearby sandy beaches). Terrapin meat became such a popular delicacy in the early 1900s that the price for a dozen adult females reached as high as US$120. Overhunting made the species uncommon and even rare through most of the Sound and eliminated at some places. After its popularity as food declined, the terrapin population started recovering.[11]

leatherback turtle are rarely seen along the Connecticut shore.[11]

Other reptiles and amphibians found along the edges of the salt marshes and nearby bodies of water include the

hognose snake (which feeds on Fowler's toads).[11]

Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) sitting on a tree swallow's nest box in the marsh at Hammonasset Beach State Park, Madison, CT. Ospreys are frequent summer residents of areas like Long Island Sound and other coastal areas in North America.

Birds

There are six broad categories of bird habitats near Long Island Sound: (1) open water areas, including bays, coves, rivers and the Sound itself; (2) tidal marshes; (3) mudflats; (4) sandy beaches; (5) offshore islands; and (6) mainland uplands, including woodlands and fields.

egrets, including the black-crowned night heron and snowy egret as well as the least tern and piping plover. Upland species include the yellow warbler, red-eyed vireo, red-winged blackbird and Carolina wren.[12]

Winter residents include large flocks of

brant.[12]

Rare and endangered species

Rare, endangered and extinct species of the Sound include the eastern spadefoot, a rare, toadlike amphibian that hasn't been recorded in the area since 1935. Its overall coloring is beige or off-white with a pattern of green markings. Small orange dots punctuate this pattern.

As many as 1,500 shortnose sturgeon, listed as 'endangered' by the Endangered Species Act, inhabit the Connecticut River.[13][14] Approximately 900 of those live downstream of Holyoke Dam.[15] While shortnose sturgeon primarily remain in their natal rivers, they will feed in estuarine waters like Long Island Sound and make extended trips along the Atlantic Coast, tagged individuals sometime being identified in multiple rivers during their lifetimes.

History

Main articles: Lake Connecticut, Lenape, History of Long Island, and History of Connecticut
Archibald Cary Smith, Long Island Sound, 1911

Long Island Sound was formed when the terminal moraine that dammed the waters of glacial

Stepping Stones Lighthouse
got its name.

men shoveling shells into water from scow being towed by another boat
Planting oyster shells in Long Island Sound in order to catch set, 1919

As the Industrial Revolution grew, Long Island Sound began to be utilized more for manufacturing and production uses that are still observed to this day, like textiles, metal finishing, fishing, and oyster harvesting. [16][19] Yet, the economic and population growth the Industrial Revolution created led to increased pollution.[19] Around the 1950s and 60s, the US Government began to recognize more of the environmental impacts pollution was having on water quality, as well as human health around regions like Long Island Sound. After the Clean Water Act was passed federally in 1972 to protect water quality around the US, the Environmental Protection Agency partnered with Connecticut and New York to pass the Long Island Sound Study (LISS) in 1985 with plans for restoration and clean-up projects in the region.[19] More habitat conservation, health monitoring, and pollution standards have been established between NY and CT in the years since to protect the estuary for future generations. [20]

Uses

Long Island Sound in Branford, Connecticut

Transportation

Ferries provide service between Long Island and Connecticut, notably the Bridgeport & Port Jefferson Ferry (between Port Jefferson and Bridgeport), and the Cross Sound Ferry (between Orient Point and New London). The ferries that cross Long Island Sound carry automobiles, trucks and buses, as well as foot passengers.[21]

Fishing

two boats with over 12 men pulling in fishing nets in calm water
Hauling in nets, Long Island Sound

Long Island Sound has historically had rich recreational and commercial fishing, including oysters, lobsters, scallops, blue crabs, tuna flounder, striped bass, and bluefish.[22] However, in recent years the western part of the sound has become increasingly deficient of marine life. The fishing and lobster industries have encouraged efforts to identify the cause of the dead water and rectify the problem.[23]

Lobsters have suffered diseases of unknown cause, but recreational fishing improved dramatically in the last 10 years due, in large part, to restoring a key component in the food chain, menhaden (a.k.a. "bunker") fish which are a mainstay of striped bass and other pelagic fish.[24] The ban of netting of bunker - which were over-fished in the late 1990s - has significantly improved the quality and volume of the striped bass population in Long Island Sound.[24][25]

Further development

Long Island Sound from Calf Pasture Beach in Norwalk, Connecticut

Underwater cables transmit electricity under Long Island Sound, most notably a new and controversial[26] Cross Sound Cable that runs from New Haven in western Connecticut, to Shoreham in central Long Island, and an older one from Rye in Westchester County to Oyster Bay on Long Island. [27] Scientists debate whether submarine power cables are safe for marine ecosystems, but installations like large-scale armoing around cables helps to protect overall ecological impact and provides ecosystem regeneration.[28]

Over the years,

Orient Point, New York, and Rhode Island.[29][30] A tunnel under the sound, as between Rye and Oyster Bay has also been proposed, to carry both freeway lanes and railroads.[31] However, no crossing has been built since the Throgs Neck Bridge in the early 1960s.[32]

Pollution

The Long Island Sound ecosystem has historically been polluted by a number of different sources, including industry, agriculture and communities (untreated sewage and urban runoff). Pollutants entering the Sound include toxic substances such as heavy metals; a specific example includes mercury discharged by the hatting industry in Danbury, Connecticut.[33] Other pollutants include pathogens, debris, and nutrients (which contain nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilizer runoff).[33][34]

Eutrophication occurs when bodies of water, like Long Island Sound, are exposed to higher levels of nutrients like nitrogen, causing harmful overgrowth of cyanobacteria that feed on them.[35] Eutrophication can also lead to algal blooms and eventually hypoxia, when runoff into water causes rapid development of algae and phytoplankton that blocks the surface of water from sunlight and deprives oxygen to marine organisms.[35] Eutrophication and its effects are direct environmental impacts on the Sound that are exacerbated by higher temperatures, stratified water columns (when the water is not well mixed vertically) and excess nutrients.[36] To date, the primary target for water remediation tactics in Long Island Sound have been nutrients discharged by sewage treatment plants and in surface runoff.[37]

Long Island Sound sustains significant populations of fish and nurseries. This biological function has been threatened by both terrestrial and chemical alterations resulting from urbanization of the area. Specifically 25–35% of the tidal wetlands in the Sound have been dredged, filled, and developed over and hypoxia and eutrophication resulting from pollution have led to low dissolved oxygen levels (less than 4.8 mg of oxygen per liter) in the water.[38] The low dissolved oxygen levels limit the fishes' ability to swim, feed, grow and reproduce and loss of habitat prevents success in fish larval growth. The impacts listed here are directly associated with these specific species in Long Island Sound: killifishes, silversides, bay anchovy, eels, menhaden, cunner, tautog, sticklebacks, winter flounder, weakfish, bluefish, tomcod and striped bass.[39]

An example of impacts from nitrogen is a shift in the types of plankton that make up their community in Long Island Sound. Over the last several decades, excess nitrogen may have adversely affected

silica.[40]
Such changes in the base of the food chain leads to consequences such as an increase in abundance of jellyfish and decline in shellfish and other fish.

Starting in the 1990s, Connecticut and federal United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) officials defined no-dumping areas in which commercial or recreational boat users were prohibited from releasing untreated sewage into the Sound near the coastline. In 2007 state and federal officials announced the ban had extended to the entire Connecticut coast and applied to both treated and untreated sewage. New Hampshire and Maine have similar bans, but Massachusetts, Maine and New York do not (all are within the contributing watersheds). From the 1990s to 2007, the number of pumping stations for boat sewage tripled to 90 at marinas up and down the coast. Violators may be charged with a state misdemeanor and face $250 fines, or a federal civil penalty, with fines of up to $2,000.[41]

To address the water quality problems, EPA created the Long Island Sound Study (LISS) in 1985, which led to LISS's Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan (CCMP) to support development of a nitrogen total maximum daily load (TMDL) in 1994.[19] The TMDL implements innovative strategies, including a nitrogen credit trading program for sewage treatment plants in Connecticut, and bubble permits for sewage treatment plants in New York. Results point to significant nitrogen reductions in Long Island Sound, and significant cost savings.[34] By 1998, a plan to reduce nitrogen outputs of effluent into the Sound was agreed upon by the federal government and the states of New York and Connecticut.[19] The goal was to reduce the amount of nitrogen entering the Sound by 58.5 percent as of 2014. New York City agreed with New York state and Connecticut to reduce nitrogen levels in 2001, but backed off its commitment and was sued by the state. In early 2006, the city agreed to lower nitrogen outputs and was given until 2017 to meet its reduction goals. By 2007, $617 million had been spent in upgrading sewage treatment plants, with 39 out of 104 retrofitted with devices to remove nitrogen.[42]

According to the EPA National Estuary Program Coastal Protection Report for June 2007, the western part of the Sound was in the worst condition. The report gives a "fair" rating to water quality in the sound and poor marks to fish, bottom-feeders and sediment. High levels of

stormwater runoff all contribute to the poor quality of the water, according to the report.[43]

Nitrogen pollution in the Sound has been declining in the 21st century. By 2016, both NY and CT attained their goals to reduce nitrogen percentages by 58.5 percent established in the TMDL.[19] According to LISS as of 2018, significant improvements to wastewater treatment plants have led to "over 50 million fewer pounds of nitrogen a year are discharged into Long Island Sound" in comparison to the 1990s.[19] In 2015 the Long Island Sound Study concluded that the Sound is cleaner and healthier than it has been, but still impaired from pollution and habitat loss.[44] To continue improving the quality of Long Island Sound, both ongoing challenges and adapting to new conditions due to climate change need to be addressed.[45]

Dumping of dredged sediment

Polluted sediment from harbor, river and waterway dredging has been dumped in four sites in the Sound, although in late 2007 two of them at the eastern end of the Sound were scheduled to be closed at some future date. A dumping site near

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers began a five- to seven-year, $16 million study on more environmentally friendly ways to dredge harbors in the Sound. Dumping the sediment in the Sound is considerably less expensive than other options, according to Connecticut harbor officials and state and federal environmental officials.[46]

Federal officials had concluded that sediment from

Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) required Norwalk, Connecticut, to "cap" 350,000 cubic yards (270,000 m3) of dumped sediment from a planned Norwalk Harbor dredging project with 75,000 cubic yards (57,000 m3) of material. Silt and sediment from the harbor contains heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, according to DEP officials.[46]

Legal status

In 1985, the

the United States
.

The classification of 'juridical bay' means that the states, and not the federal government, have jurisdiction over the Long Island Sound waters. This also means that the legal coastline of the United States incorporates the southern shore of Long Island, but not the alternative that would have been to consider the coastline to follow additionally the southern shores of

Westchester County, the Bronx, and Manhattan.[47]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Long Island Sound Region at Night: Image of the Day". National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 2013-09-30. Archived from the original on 2014-04-13. Retrieved 2013-10-01.
  2. ^ a b c d "Long Island Sound: An Atlas of Natural Resources", booklet"Prepared under the supervision of the Coastal Area Management Program" of the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection, November 1977, "1. Glacial History" section, page 4
  3. ^ "Watershed Population « Long Island Sound Study". longislandsoundstudy.net. Archived from the original on 2021-10-28. Retrieved 2017-01-19.
  4. ^ "The Sound Site - Soundkeeper". soundbook.soundkeeper.org. Archived from the original on 2016-11-06. Retrieved 2017-01-19.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Long Island Sound: An Atlas of Natural Resources", booklet"Prepared under the supervision of the Coastal Area Management Program" of the "Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection", November 1977, "5. Vegetation" section, pp 17-21
  6. ISBN 978-1-932916-34-8. Archived
    from the original on 2021-10-28. Retrieved 2020-09-20.
  7. ^ Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). "PLANTS Profile, County Distribution Lychnis coronaria". The PLANTS Database. United States Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original on 2021-10-28. Retrieved 2008-03-03.
  8. ^ a b "Long Island Sound: An Atlas of Natural Resources", booklet"Prepared under the supervision of the Coastal Area Management Program" of the "Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection", November 1977, "10. Fishes" section, pp 36-39
  9. ^ "Long Island Sound: An Atlas of Natural Resources", booklet "Prepared under the supervision of the Coastal Area Management Program" of the "Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection", November 1977, "8. Mollusks" section, pp 31-32
  10. ^ a b "Long Island Sound: An Atlas of Natural Resources", booklet"Prepared under the supervision of the Coastal Area Management Program" of the "Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection", November 1977, "7. Crustacea" section, pp 26-28
  11. ^ a b c d "Long Island Sound: An Atlas of Natural Resources", booklet"Prepared under the supervision of the Coastal Area Management Program" of the "Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection", November 1977, "12. Mammals, Reptiles and Amphibians" section, pp 43-44
  12. ^ a b c d "Long Island Sound: An Atlas of Natural Resources", booklet"Prepared under the supervision of the Coastal Area Management Program" of the "Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection", November 1977, "11. Birds" section, page 40
  13. ^ "Working For Nature Series: Shortnose Sturgeon". Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection. July 30, 2003. Archived from the original on 2006-09-26. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  14. ^ Savoy, T (2004). "Population estimate and utilization of the lower Connecticut River by shortnose sturgeon". The Connecticut River Ecological Study (1965–1973) Revisited: Ecology of the Lower Connecticut River. 1973–2003: 345–352.
  15. ^ Savoy, T; Shake, D (1992). "Sturgeon status in Connecticut waters". Final Report to the National Marine Fisheries Service, Gloucester, Massachusetts.
  16. ^
    ISBN 0-300-08250-9
    .
  17. ^ Bancroft, George (1886). History of the United States of America: From the Discovery of the Continent. D. Appleton. p. 489.
  18. ^ "Illustrated History of the Moriches Bay Area (excerpts), by Van and Mary Field". Centermoricheslibrary.org. Archived from the original on December 24, 2019. Retrieved April 17, 2021.
  19. ^ a b c d e f g "History". Long Island Sound Study. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  20. ^ "Conservation History of Long Island Sound". Audubon Connecticut. 2015-07-02. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  21. ^ The Bridgeport & Port Jefferson Steamboat Company Archived 2009-03-15 at the Wayback Machine, Cross Sound Ferry, between Orient Point and New London Archived 2009-05-10 at the Wayback Machine
  22. ^ "Game Fish". Long Island Sound Study. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  23. S2CID 245606250
    .
  24. ^ a b "Cuomo expected to sign bunker fish protection bill". NY State Senate. 2019-04-23. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  25. ^ Broatch, Kierran (2012-07-30). "Bunker Plentiful in Long Island Sound This Year". Save the Sound. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  26. ISSN 0362-4331
    . Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  27. ^ "Long Island Sound Submerged Cable And Pipeline Areas". deepmaps.ct.gov. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  28. ^ "Ecological Cable Protection in Long Island Sound". Marine Technology News. 2021-02-24. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  29. ^ "Eastern Long Island Sound Crossing (I-495, unbuilt)". nycroads.com. Archived from the original on 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2007-02-03.
  30. ^ Ritterhoff, Gale (2021-05-26). "The History of Trying to Connect Westchester and Long Island". Westchester Magazine. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  31. ^ "Oyster Bay-Rye Bridge (I-287, unbuilt)". www.nycroads.com. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  32. ^ "Throgs Neck Bridge (I-295)". www.nycroads.com. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  33. ^
    JSTOR 4300074
    .
  34. ^ a b "Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDLs) at Work: New York: Restoring the Long Island Sound While Saving Money". EPA. Archived from the original on June 30, 2012. Retrieved June 14, 2013.
  35. ^ a b US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "What is a dead zone?". oceanservice.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  36. ^ US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "Responding to Hurricanes". oceanservice.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  37. ^ Burg, Robert (2014-10-09). "Water Quality Improves in Long Island Sound". Long Island Sound Study. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  38. ^ "Habitat Restoration Initiative". Long Island Sound Study. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
  39. ISBN 9781461461258
    .
  40. ^ "Ellen Thomas". Ethomas.faculty.wesleyan.edu. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
  41. ^ Lockhart, Brian (2007-07-27). "State protects coast from boaters' sewage: EPA declares no-discharge area". The Advocate (Norwalk ed.). Stamford, CT. pp. 1, A4.
  42. ^ Stelloh, Tom (2007-07-15). "671M later, no clear picture of Sound's health=". The Advocate. pp. 1, A4.
  43. ^ [1] Archived 2007-07-15 at the Wayback Machine EPA Web page for navigation of the National Estuary Program Coastal Protection Report for June 2007; [2] Archived 2007-06-27 at the Wayback Machine Chapter 3 of the report, "Northeast National Estuary Program Coastal Condition Long Island Sound Study", accessed June 27, 2007
  44. ^ Long Island Sound Study (2015). "Section 2: Geography, History and Health of the Sound." Archived 2018-09-30 at the Wayback Machine
  45. OCLC 68622505
    .
  46. ^
    The Advocate
     of Stamford (Norwalk edition): "Dredge report: Sound disputes aired at hearing", page 1; "Bid to skip dredging cap draws no support", page A7
  47. ^ a b "Rhode Island and New York Boundary Case". FindLaw. 1985. Archived from the original on 27 June 2013. Retrieved 15 October 2014.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Long Island Sound.
American Cyclopædia article Long Island Sound
.

41°05′48″N 72°52′52″W / 41.09667°N 72.88111°W / 41.09667; -72.88111

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