Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson
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Born | 29 September [O.S. 18 September] 1758 Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk, Great Britain |
Died | 21 October 1805 HMS Victory, off Cape Trafalgar, Spain | (aged 47)
Burial place | St Paul's Cathedral, London, England |
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Military career | |
Service/ | Royal Navy |
Years of service | 1771–1805 |
Rank | Vice-admiral of the White |
Commands held | Mediterranean Fleet |
Battles/wars |
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Awards | Order of the Bath |
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Nelson was born into a moderately prosperous
In 1801, Nelson was dispatched to the
Nelson's death at Trafalgar secured his position as one of Britain's most heroic figures. His signal just prior to the commencement of the battle, "England expects that every man will do his duty", is regularly quoted and paraphrased. Numerous monuments, including Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square, London, and the Nelson Monument in Edinburgh, have been created in his memory.
Early life
Horatio Nelson was born on 29 September [
Nelson's uncle Maurice Suckling was a high-ranking naval officer, and is believed to have had a major impact on Nelson's life.[5]
Catherine Suckling lived in the village of Barsham, Suffolk, and married the Reverend Edmund Nelson at Beccles Church, Suffolk, in 1749.[6]
Nelson attended
East and West Indies, 1771–1780
Raisonnable had been commissioned during a period of tension with Spain, but when this passed, Suckling was transferred to the
At his nephew's request, Suckling arranged for Nelson to join the expedition as coxswain[10] to Commander Skeffington Lutwidge aboard the converted bomb vessel, HMS Carcass. The expedition reached within ten degrees of the North Pole, but, unable to find a way through the dense ice floes, was forced to turn back. By 1800, Lutwidge had begun to circulate a story that, while the ship had been trapped in the ice, Nelson had spotted and pursued a polar bear, before being ordered to return to the ship. Later, in 1809, Lutwidge had it that Nelson, and a companion, gave chase to the bear and upon being questioned as to why, replied: "I wished, Sir, to get the skin for my father."[11]
Nelson briefly returned to Triumph, after the expedition's return to Britain, in September 1773. Suckling then arranged for his transfer to HMS Seahorse; one of two ships about to sail for the East Indies.[12]
Nelson sailed for the East Indies on 19 November 1773, and arrived at the British outpost at
Nelson spent the rest of the year escorting convoys, during which he continued to develop his navigation and ship handling skills. In early 1776, he contracted malaria and became seriously ill. He was discharged from Seahorse on 14 March and returned to England aboard
Worcester, under the command of Captain
As well as giving him his first taste of command, it gave Nelson the opportunity to explore his fledgling interest in science. During his first cruise in command of Little Lucy, Nelson led an expeditionary party to the
Nelson and Badger spent most of 1779 cruising off of the Central American coast, ranging as far as the British settlements at
Nelson took command of the Hinchinbrook on 1 September 1779.
In February 1780, Hinchinbrook sailed from Jamaica as an escort for Dalling's invasion force. After sailing up the mouth of the San Juan River, Nelson's expeditionary force obtained the surrender of the Fortress of the Immaculate Conception and its 160 Spanish defenders after a two-week siege.[32] Despite this initial success, the British forces never reached Lake Nicaragua and, decimated by yellow fever, were forced to return to Jamaica. The British destroyed the fortress when they evacuated in January 1781. The failed campaign cost the lives of more than 2,500 men, making it the costliest British disaster of the entire war.[33] Despite this, Nelson was praised for his efforts.[34]
Parker recalled Nelson and gave him command of the 44-gun frigate, HMS Janus.[35] In 1780, Nelson fell seriously ill with what seemed to be dysentery[36] and possibly yellow fever,[37] in the jungles of Costa Rica, and was unable to take command. He was taken to Kingston, Jamaica, to be nursed by "doctoress" Cubah Cornwallis, a rumoured mistress of fellow captain William Cornwallis;[38] she ran a combination lodging-house and convalescence home for sailors.[39][37] He was discharged in August and returned to Britain aboard HMS Lion,[40] arriving in late November. Nelson gradually recovered over several months, and soon began agitating for a command. He was appointed to the frigate HMS Albemarle on 15 August 1781.[41]
Nelson's views on slavery
While Nelson served in the
The debate over the future of slavery divided Britons. Wilberforce personified one type of British patriotism—arguing for an end to slave-trading on the basis that it was a blot on the reputation of a proud and Christian nation. Slaveholders offered their own patriotic arguments—maintaining that the trade was so instrumental to the imperial economy that Britain could ill-afford to stop it. Nelson had befriended several slaveholding colonists during his time in the Caribbean. Privately, he came to sympathise with their political outlook. It is clear that, by the time of his death at Trafalgar, he despised Wilberforce and stood in staunch opposition to the British abolitionist campaign.[43]
Over the course of his life, Nelson came into contact numerous times with aspects of slavery and the people who were involved in that institution. These included both his relationships with Caribbean plantation owners and his marriage to Fanny, a slaveowner who was born into a family which belonged to the Antiguan plantocracy. One of his friends in the West Indies was Simon Taylor, one of the richest plantation owners in Jamaica who owned hundreds of slaves. In 1805, Taylor wrote to Nelson, requesting that he publicly intervene in favour of the pro-slavery side in Britain's debate over abolition. Nelson wrote a letter back to Taylor, writing that "while [he had] ... a tongue", he would "launch [his] voice against the damnable and cursed (sic)[b] doctrine of Wilberforce and his hypocritical allies".[44] In the same letter, Nelson also wrote that he had always "[endeavoured] to serve the Public weal, of which the West India Colonies form so prominent and interesting a part. I have ever been, and shall die, a firm friend to our present Colonial system. I was bred, as you know, in the good old school, and taught to appreciate the value of our West India possessions."[45]
This letter was published in 1807, by the anti-abolitionist faction; some eighteen months after Nelson's death, and out of context, in an apparent attempt to bolster their cause prior to the parliamentary vote on the Abolition Bill. The wording of the letter as published in 1807—not in Nelson's handwriting, and with a poor facsimile of his signature—appears out of character for Nelson whose many other surviving letters never expressed racist or pro-slavery sentiments. Comparison with the "pressed copy" of the original letter—now part of the Bridport papers held in the British Library—shows that the published copy had 25 alterations,[46] distorting it to give it a more anti-Abolitionist slant. Many of Nelson's actions indicate his position on the matter of slavery, most notably:
- Any West Indian slave escaping to a navy ship, including Nelson's, were signed on, paid, and treated the same as other crew members. At the end of their service they were discharged as free men. In fact, the bronze relief at the base of Nelson's column clearly shows the black George Ryan, aged 23, with musket shooting the French alongside the dying Admiral.[47]
- In 1799, Nelson intervened to secure the release of 24 slaves being held in Portuguese galleys off Palermo.[48][49]
- In 1802, when it was proposed that West Indian plantation slaves should be replaced by free, paid industrious Chinese workers—Nelson supported the idea.[50]
- In 1805, Nelson rescued the black Haitian General Joseph Chretien, and his servant, from the French. They asked if they could serve with Nelson, and Nelson recommended to the Admiralty that they be paid until they could be discharged and granted passage to Jamaica. The General's mission was to end slavery, a fact of which Nelson was well aware. The general and his servant were well treated and paid.[51]
- The Nelson family used to have a free black servant called Price. Nelson said of him he was "as good a man as ever lived" and he suggested to Emma that she invite the elderly Price to live with them. In the event, Price declined.[52]
Command, 1781–1796
Captain of Albemarle
Nelson received orders on 23 October 1781, to take the newly refitted Albemarle to sea. He was instructed to collect an inbound convoy of the
In August 1782, Nelson had a narrow escape from a far superior French force under
During his scouting operations, Nelson had developed a plan to attack the French garrison of the
Island of Nevis, marriage and peace
Nelson visited France in late 1783 and stayed with acquaintances at
In 1784, Nelson received command of the frigate
In the interim, Nelson met Frances "Fanny" Nisbet, a young widow from a Nevis plantation family.[74] Nelson developed an affection for her. In response, her uncle, John Herbert, offered him a massive dowry. Both Herbert and Nisbet concealed the fact that their famed riches were a fiction, and Fanny did not disclose the fact that she was infertile due to a womb infection. Once they were engaged, Herbert offered Nelson nowhere near the dowry he had promised.[citation needed]
During the Georgian era, breaking a marital engagement was seen as quite dishonourable,[75] and so Nelson and Nisbet were married at Montpelier Estate, on the island of Nevis, on 11 March 1787, shortly before the end of his tour of duty in the Caribbean.[76] The marriage was registered at Fig Tree Church in St John's Parish on Nevis. Nelson returned to England in July, with Fanny following later.[77] Following the marriage he became the stepfather of Nisbet's 7-year-old son, Josiah Nisbet.
Nelson remained with Boreas until she was paid off in November 1787.[78] He and Fanny then divided their time between Bath and London, occasionally visiting Nelson's relations in Norfolk. In 1788, they settled at Nelson's childhood home at Burnham Thorpe.[79] Now in reserve and on half-pay, he attempted to persuade the Admiralty—and other senior figures he was acquainted with, such as Hood—to provide him with a command. He was unsuccessful, as there were too few ships in the peacetime navy, and Hood did not intercede on his behalf.[80]
Nelson spent his time trying to find employment for former crew members, attending to family affairs, and cajoling contacts in the navy for a posting. In 1792, the French revolutionary government annexed the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium), which were traditionally preserved as a buffer state. The Admiralty recalled Nelson to service and gave him command of the 64-gun HMS Agamemnon, in January 1793. Nelson took his stepson Josiah with him as a midshipman.[81] On 1 February, France declared war.[82]
Mediterranean service
In May 1793, Nelson sailed as part of a division under the command of Vice Admiral William Hotham, joined later in the month by the rest of Lord Hood's fleet.[83] The force initially sailed to Gibraltar and—with the intention of establishing naval superiority in the Mediterranean—made their way to Toulon, anchoring off the port in July.[84] Toulon was largely under the control of moderate republicans and royalists, but was threatened by the forces of the National Convention, which were marching on the city. Short of supplies and doubting their ability to defend themselves, the city authorities requested that Hood take it under his protection. Hood readily acquiesced, and sent Nelson to carry dispatches to Sardinia and Naples, requesting reinforcements.[85]
After delivering the dispatches to Sardinia, Agamemnon arrived at Naples in early September. There, Nelson met King
The negotiations were successful, and 2,000 men and several ships were mustered by mid-September. Nelson put to sea in pursuit of a French frigate, but on failing to catch her, sailed for Leghorn, and then to Corsica.[89] He arrived at Toulon on 5 October, where he found that a large French army had occupied the hills surrounding the city and was bombarding it. Hood still hoped the city could be held if more reinforcements arrived, and sent Nelson to join a squadron operating off Cagliari.[90]
Corsica
Early on the morning of 22 October 1793, Agamemnon sighted five sails. Nelson closed with them and discovered that they were a French squadron. He promptly gave chase, firing on the 40-gun Melpomene.[91] During the action of 22 October 1793, he inflicted considerable damage, but the remaining French ships turned to join the battle. Realising he was outnumbered, Nelson withdrew and continued to Cagliari, arriving on 24 October.[91] After making repairs, Nelson and Agamemnon sailed for Tunis on 26 October with a squadron under Commodore Robert Linzee.[92]
On his arrival, Nelson was given command of a small squadron consisting of Agamemnon, three frigates, and a sloop, and ordered to blockade the French garrison on Corsica.[92] The fall of Toulon at the end of December 1793 severely damaged British fortunes in the Mediterranean. Hood had failed to make adequate provisions for a withdrawal and 18 French ships-of-the-line fell into republican hands.[93] Nelson's mission to Corsica took on an added significance, as it could provide the British with a naval base close to the French coast.[93] Hood therefore reinforced Nelson with extra ships during January 1794.[94]
A British assault force landed on the island on 7 February, after which, Nelson moved to intensify the blockade off
British forces landed at Calvi on 19 June, and immediately began moving guns ashore to occupy the heights surrounding the town. While Nelson directed a continuous bombardment of the enemy positions, Stuart's men began to advance. On the morning of 12 July, Nelson was at one of the forward batteries when a shot struck one of the nearby sandbags protecting the position, spraying stones and sand. Nelson was struck by debris in his right eye and forced to retire from the position. However, his wound was soon bandaged and he returned to action.[99] By 18 July, most of the enemy positions had been disabled and that night Stuart, supported by Nelson, stormed the main defensive position and captured it. Repositioning their guns, the British brought Calvi under constant bombardment, and the town surrendered on 10 August.[100] Nelson did regain partial sight in his damaged eye after the siege, but by his own account could only "...distinguish light from dark but no object."
Genoa and the fight of the Ça Ira
After the occupation of Corsica, Hood ordered Nelson to open diplomatic relations with the city-state of Genoa—a strategically important potential ally.[101] Soon afterwards, Hood returned to England and was succeeded by Admiral William Hotham as commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean. Nelson put into Leghorn and, while Agamemnon underwent repairs, met with other naval officers at the port and entertained a brief affair with a local woman, Adelaide Correglia.[102] Hotham arrived with the rest of the fleet in December, whereupon Nelson and Agamemnon sailed on a number of cruises with them in late 1794 and early 1795.[103]
On 8 March, news reached Hotham that the French fleet was at sea and heading for Corsica. He immediately set out to intercept them, and Nelson eagerly anticipated his first fleet action. The French were reluctant to engage, and the two fleets shadowed each other on 12 March. The following day, two of the French ships collided, allowing Nelson to engage the much larger, 84-gun Ça Ira. This engagement went on for two and a half hours, until the arrival of two French ships forced Nelson to veer away, having inflicted heavy casualties and considerable damage.[104]
The fleets continued to shadow each other before making contact again on 14 March in the Battle of Genoa. Nelson joined the other British ships in attacking the battered Ça Ira, now under tow from Censeur. Heavily damaged, the two French ships were forced to surrender, and Nelson took possession of Censeur. Defeated at sea, the French abandoned their plan to invade Corsica and returned to port.[105]
Skirmishes and the retreat from Italy
Nelson and the fleet remained in the Mediterranean throughout the summer of 1795. On 4 July, Agamemnon sailed from San Fiorenzo, with a small force of frigates and sloops, bound for Genoa. On 6 July, Nelson ran into the French fleet and found himself pursued by several, much larger ships-of-the-line. He retreated to San Fiorenzo, arriving just ahead of the pursuing French, who broke off as Nelson's signal guns alerted the British fleet in the harbour.
Nelson returned to operate out of Genoa, intercepting and inspecting merchantmen and cutting-out suspicious vessels, in both enemy and neutral harbours.
A large French assault at the end of November, broke the allied lines, forcing a general retreat towards Genoa. Nelson's forces were able to cover the withdrawing army and prevent them from being surrounded, but he had too few ships and men to materially alter the strategic situation. The British were forced to withdraw from the Italian ports. Nelson returned to Corsica on 30 November, angry and depressed with the British failure, and questioning his future in the navy.[110]
Jervis and the evacuation of the Mediterranean
In January 1796, the position of commander-in-chief of the fleet in the Mediterranean passed to Sir John Jervis, who appointed Nelson to exercise independent command over the ships blockading the French coast as a commodore.[111] Nelson spent the first half of the year conducting operations to frustrate French advances and bolster Britain's Italian allies. Despite some minor successes in intercepting small French warships—such as in the action of 31 May 1796, when Nelson's squadron captured a convoy of seven small vessels—he began to feel the British presence on the Italian peninsula was rapidly becoming useless.[112] In June, the Agamemnon was sent back to Britain for repairs, and Nelson was appointed to the 74-gun HMS Captain.[112]
In the same month, the French thrust towards Leghorn and were certain to capture the city. Nelson hurried there to oversee the evacuation of British nationals and transport them to Corsica. After which, Jervis ordered him to blockade the newly captured French port.[113] In July, he oversaw the occupation of Elba, but by September, the Genoese had broken their neutrality to declare in favour of the French.[114] By October, the Genoese position and continued French advances, led the British to decide that the Mediterranean fleet could no longer be supplied. They ordered it to be evacuated to Gibraltar. Nelson helped oversee the withdrawal from Corsica and, by December 1796, was aboard the frigate HMS Minerve, covering the evacuation of the garrison at Elba. He then sailed for Gibraltar.[115]
During the passage, Nelson
Admiral, 1797–1801
Battle of Cape St Vincent
Nelson joined Sir
After an hour of exchanging broadsides, which left both Captain and Culloden badly damaged, Nelson found himself alongside San Nicolas. He led a boarding party across, crying, "Westminster Abbey or glorious victory!" and forced her to surrender.[120] San Josef attempted to come to the San Nicolas' aid, but became entangled with her compatriot and was left immobile. Nelson led his party from the deck of San Nicolas onto San Josef and captured her as well.[119] As night fell, the Spanish fleet broke off and sailed for Cadiz. Four ships had surrendered to the British and two of them were Nelson's.[121]
Nelson was victorious, but had disobeyed direct orders. Jervis liked Nelson and so did not officially reprimand him,[121] but did not mention Nelson's actions in his official report of the battle.[122] He did write a private letter to First Lord of the Admiralty, George Spencer, in which he said that Nelson "contributed very much to the fortune of the day".[121] Nelson also wrote several letters about his victory, reporting that his action was being referred to amongst the fleet as "Nelson's Patent Bridge for boarding first rates".[120]
Nelson's account was later challenged by Rear Admiral
Action off Cadiz
Nelson was given HMS Theseus as his flagship, and on 27 May 1797, was ordered to lie off Cadiz; monitoring the Spanish fleet and awaiting the arrival of Spanish treasure ships from the American colonies.[128] He carried out a bombardment, and personally led an amphibious assault, on 3 July. During the action, Nelson's barge collided with that of the Spanish commander, and a hand-to-hand struggle ensued between the two crews. Twice, Nelson was nearly cut down and—both times—his life was saved by a seaman named John Sykes, who took the blows himself and was badly wounded. The British raiding force captured the Spanish boat and towed her back to Theseus.[128][129] During this period, Nelson developed a scheme to capture Santa Cruz de Tenerife, aiming to seize a large quantity of specie from the treasure ship Principe de Asturias, which was reported to have recently arrived.[130]
Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife
The battle plan called for a combination of naval bombardments and an amphibious landing. The initial attempt was called off after adverse currents hampered the assault and the element of surprise was lost.[131] Nelson immediately ordered another assault, but this was beaten back. He prepared for a third attempt, to take place during the night. Although he personally led one of the battalions, the operation ended in failure, as the Spanish were better prepared than had been expected and had secured strong defensive positions.[132]
Several of the boats failed to land at the correct positions in the confusion, while those that did were swept by gunfire and grapeshot. Nelson's boat reached its intended landing point, but as he stepped ashore, he was hit in the right arm by a musketball, which fractured his humerus in multiple places.[132] He was rowed back to Theseus to be attended to by its surgeon, Thomas Eshelby.[133] Upon arriving at his ship, he refused to be helped aboard, declaring:
- "Let me alone! I have yet legs left and one arm. Tell the surgeon to make haste and get his instruments. I know I must lose my right arm and the sooner it is off, the better".[132][134]
Most of the right arm was amputated and, within half an hour, Nelson had returned to issuing orders to his captains.
Meanwhile, a force under Sir Thomas Troubridge had fought their way to the main square but could go no further. Unable to return to the fleet because their boats had been sunk, Troubridge was forced to enter into negotiations with the Spanish commander, and the British were allowed to withdraw.[138] The expedition had failed to achieve any of its objectives and had left a quarter of the landing force dead or wounded.[138][139]
The squadron remained off Tenerife for a further three days and, by 16 August, had rejoined Lord John Jervis' fleet off Cadiz. Despondently, Nelson wrote to Jervis:
- "A left-handed Admiral will never again be considered as useful, therefore the sooner I get to a very humble cottage the better, and make room for a better man to serve the state".[140]
He returned to England, aboard HMS Seahorse, arriving at Spithead on 1 September. He was met with a hero's welcome; the British public had lionised Nelson after Cape St Vincent, and his wound earned him sympathy.[141] They refused to attribute the defeat at Tenerife to him, preferring instead to blame poor planning on the part of St Vincent, the Secretary at War, William Windham, or even Prime Minister William Pitt.[141]
Return to England
Nelson returned to Bath with Fanny, before moving to London in October 1797, to seek expert medical attention concerning his amputation wound. While in London, news reached him that
Although surgeons had been unable to remove the central
French activities in the Mediterranean theatre were raising concern among the Admiralty as
The Mediterranean
Hunting the French
Nelson passed through the Straits of Gibraltar, and took up position off Toulon, by 17 May, but his squadron was dispersed and blown southwards by a strong gale which struck the area, on 20 May.
Nelson began searching the Italian coast for Napoleon's fleet, but was hampered by a lack of frigates that could operate as fast scouts. Napoleon had already arrived at
Nelson, meanwhile, had crossed the Mediterranean again, in a fruitless attempt to locate the French, and returned to Naples to re-provision.[151] When he again set sail, his intentions were to search the seas off Cyprus, but he decided to pass Alexandria again for a final check. Along the way, his force found and captured a French merchant ship, which provided the first news of the French fleet: they had passed south-east of Crete a month prior—heading to Alexandria.[152] Nelson hurried to the port, but again found it empty of the French. Searching along the coast, he finally discovered the French fleet in Aboukir Bay, on 1 August 1798.[153]
The Battle of the Nile
Nelson immediately prepared for battle, repeating a sentiment he had expressed at the battle of Cape St Vincent: "Before this time tomorrow, I shall have gained a peerage or Westminster Abbey."
The British fleet was soon heavily engaged, passing down the French line and engaging their ships one by one. Nelson, on Vanguard, personally engaged Spartiate, while also coming under fire from Aquilon. At about eight o'clock, he was with Edward Berry on the quarter-deck, when a piece of French shot struck him in the forehead. He fell to the deck, with a flap of torn skin obscuring his good eye. Blinded and half-stunned, he felt sure he would die and cried out, "I am killed. Remember me to my wife." He was taken below to be seen by the surgeon.[157] After examining Nelson, the surgeon pronounced the wound non-threatening and applied a temporary bandage.[158]
The French van, pounded by British fire from both sides, had begun to surrender, and the victorious British ships continued to move down the line, bringing Brueys' 118-gun flagship Orient under constant, heavy fire. Orient caught fire under this bombardment, and later exploded. Nelson briefly came on deck to direct the battle, but returned to the surgeon after watching the destruction of Orient.[159]
The Battle of the Nile was a major blow to Napoleon's ambitions in the east. The fleet had been destroyed; Orient, another ship and two frigates had been burnt, while seven 74-gun ships and two 80-gun ships had been captured. Only two ships-of-the-line and two frigates escaped.
Given its strategic importance, historians such as Ernle Bradford, regard Nelson's achievement at the Nile as the most significant of his career, even greater than that at Trafalgar, seven years later.[161]
Rewards
Nelson wrote dispatches to the Admiralty and oversaw temporary repairs to the Vanguard before sailing to Naples, where he was met with enthusiastic celebrations.[162] King Ferdinand IV of Naples, in company with the Hamiltons, greeted him in person when he arrived at port, and Sir William Hamilton invited Nelson to stay at his home.[163] Celebrations were held in honour of Nelson's birthday that September 1798, and he attended a banquet at the Hamiltons' house, where other officers had begun to notice his attentions to Emma, Lady Hamilton.
Lord Jervis himself had begun to grow concerned about reports of Nelson's behaviour, but in early October, word of Nelson's victory had reached London and overshadowed the matter. The First Lord of the Admiralty, George Spencer, fainted upon hearing the news.[164] Scenes of celebration erupted across the country; balls and victory feasts were held, and church bells were rung. The City of London awarded Nelson, and his captains, swords, while the King ordered they be presented with special medals. Emperor Paul I of Russia sent Nelson a gift, and Sultan Selim III of the Ottoman Empire awarded Nelson the Order of the Turkish Crescent, as well as the diamond chelengk from his own turban,[165] for Nelson's role in restoring Ottoman rule to Egypt.
Neapolitan campaign
Nelson was dismayed by Lord Spencer's decision, and declared that he would rather have received no title than that of a mere barony.[168] He was, however, cheered by the attention showered on him by the citizens of Naples, the prestige accorded him by the kingdom's elite, and the comforts he received at the Hamiltons' residence. He made frequent visits to their residence to attend functions in his honour, or tour nearby attractions with Emma, who was almost constantly at his side and with whom, by now, he had fallen deeply in love.[169]
Orders arrived from the Admiralty to blockade the French forces in Alexandria and Malta, a task Nelson delegated to his captains, Samuel Hood and Alexander Ball. Despite enjoying his lifestyle in Naples—even while judging it to be a "country of fiddlers and poets, whores and scoundrels", which he found less than desirable[165]—Nelson began to think of returning to England.[169] However, King Ferdinand IV, had just faced an extended period of pressure from his wife, Maria Carolina of Austria, who was advocating for an aggressive foreign policy towards France; a country which, five years earlier, had beheaded her sister, and its queen, Marie Antoinette.[165] Sir William Hamilton was joined in agreement with Queen Maria Carolina, and the King finally agreed to declare war on France.[170]
The
With the departure of the Royal Family, Naples descended into anarchy, and news reached Palermo, in January, that the French had entered the city under General
Dismayed by the bloodshed, Ruffo agreed to a capitulation with the Jacobin forces, which allowed them safe conduct to France. Nelson arrived off Naples on 24 June, to find the treaty put into effect. His subsequent role is still controversial.[175] Nelson, aboard Foudroyant, was outraged, and backed by King Ferdinand IV, he insisted that the rebels must surrender unconditionally.[176] They refused. Nelson appears to have relented and the Jacobin forces marched out to the awaiting transports. Nelson then had the transports seized.[175]
He took those who had surrendered under the treaty under armed guard, as well as the former Admiral
Nelson kept the bulk of the Jacobins on the transports and began to hand hundreds over for trial and execution, refusing to intervene, despite pleas for
In 1799, Nelson opposed the mistreatment of slaves held in Portuguese galleys off Palermo and intervened to secure their release. Nelson petitioned the Portuguese commander Marquiz de Niza:
- "As a friend, as an English admiral—as a favour to me, as a favour to my country—that you will give me the Slaves".
The marquis acquiesced to the unusual request, allowing twenty-four slaves to be transferred to HMS Bonne Citoyenne; their blessings to Nelson ringing out across the harbour, as their names were added to the sloop's already crowded muster book.[48][49]
Siege of Malta
Nelson returned to Palermo in August, and in September, became the senior officer in the Mediterranean, after Lord
Nelson had a difficult relationship with his superior officer; he was gaining a reputation for insubordination, having initially refused to send ships when Keith requested them, and on occasion, returning to Palermo without orders, pleading poor health.[187] Keith's reports, and rumours of Nelson's close relationship with Emma Hamilton, were now circulating around London, and Lord Spencer wrote a pointed letter suggesting that he return home:
You will be more likely to recover your health and strength in England than in any inactive situation at a foreign Court, however pleasing the respect and gratitude shown to you for your services may be.[188]
Return to England
The recall of Sir William Hamilton to Britain was a further incentive for Nelson to return. In June Nelson left Malta and conveyed Queen
Nelson, the Hamiltons, and several other British travellers, left Leghorn for
He attended court and was guest of honour at a number of banquets and balls. During this period,
I love you sincerely but I cannot forget my obligations to Lady Hamilton or speak of her otherwise than with affection and admiration.[194]
The two never lived together again.[194]
The Baltic
Shortly after his arrival in England, Nelson was appointed to be second-in-command of the
Tired of British ships imposing a blockade against French trade and stopping and searching their merchantmen, the Russian, Prussian, Danish and Swedish governments had formed an alliance to break the blockade. Nelson joined Admiral Sir Hyde Parker's fleet at Yarmouth, from where they sailed for the Danish coast in March. On their arrival, Parker was inclined to blockade Denmark and control the entrance to the Baltic, but Nelson urged a pre-emptive attack on the Danish fleet in the harbour of Copenhagen.[199] He convinced Parker to allow him to make an assault and was given significant reinforcements. Parker himself would wait in the Kattegat, covering Nelson's fleet in case of the arrival of the Swedish or Russian fleets.[200]
Battle of Copenhagen
On the morning of 2 April 1801, Nelson began to advance into Copenhagen harbour. The battle began badly for the British, with HMS Agamemnon, Bellona and Russell running aground, and the rest of the fleet encountering heavier fire from the Danish shore batteries than had been anticipated. Sir Hyde Parker sent the signal for Nelson to withdraw, reasoning:
I will make the signal for recall for Nelson's sake. If he is in a condition to continue the action he will disregard it; if he is not, it will be an excuse for his retreat and no blame can be attached to him.[201]
Nelson, directing action aboard HMS Elephant, was informed of the signal by the signal lieutenant, Frederick Langford, but angrily responded: "I told you to look out on the Danish commodore and let me know when he surrendered. Keep your eyes fixed on him."[202] He then turned to his flag captain, Thomas Foley, and said "You know, Foley, I have only one eye. I have a right to be blind sometimes." He raised the telescope to his blind eye, and said "I really do not see the signal."[c][202][204]
The battle lasted three hours, leaving both Danish and British fleets heavily damaged. At length, Nelson dispatched a letter to the Danish commander, Crown Prince Frederick, calling for a truce, which the Prince accepted.[205] Parker approved of Nelson's actions in retrospect, and Nelson was given the honour of going into Copenhagen the next day to open formal negotiations.[206][207] At a banquet that evening, he told Prince Frederick that the battle had been the most severe he had ever participated in.[208] The outcome of the battle—and several weeks of ensuing negotiations—was a fourteen-week armistice, with Nelson becoming commander-in-chief in the Baltic Sea, upon Parker's recall in May.[209]
As a reward for the victory, he was created
Leave in England, 1801–1803
In France, Napoleon was amassing forces to
Grand tour
In the summer of 1802, Nelson, and the Hamiltons, embarked on a tour of England and Wales,[165] visiting Oxford (Star Inn), Woodstock, Oxfordshire 4th Duke of Marlborough – Blenheim Palace, Gloucester, Forest of Dean, Ross-on-Wye, then by river to Monmouth, Abergavenny, Brecon, Carmarthen, Milford Haven (New Inn), Tenby, Swansea, Carmarthen, Merthyr Tydfil (Star Inn) visited Cyfartha Ironworks to see the place were the 104 guns had been made for his flagship, HMS Victory, Ffos y Gerddinen coaching inn, now both village and inn renamed Nelson, Caerphilly, Monmouth (Beaufort Arms), Hereford, Ludlow, Worcester (Hop Pole Inn), Birmingham (Styles hotel), Warwick, Althorp (Lord Spencer) and returning to Merton Place Sunday 5 September,[217] passing through numerous other towns and villages along the way. Nelson often found himself received as a hero, (except at Woodstock) and was the centre of celebrations and events held in his honour.[215]
In September, Lady Hamilton purchased
Witness at the treason trial of Edward Despard
In January 1803, Nelson appeared as a
- "We went on the Spanish Main together; we slept many nights together in our clothes upon the ground; we have measured the height of the enemies walls together. In all that period of time, no man could have shewn more zealous attachment to his Sovereign and his Country".
Under cross-examination, however, Nelson had to concede to having "lost sight of Despard for the last twenty years".[220][221]
Nelson directed a further plea for clemency to Prime Minister
Return to sea, 1803
Nelson was appointed commander-in-chief of the Mediterranean Fleet and given the first-rate HMS Victory as his flagship. He joined her at Portsmouth, where he received orders to sail to Malta and take command of a squadron there, before joining the blockade of Toulon.[224] Nelson arrived off Toulon in July 1803, and spent the next year and a half enforcing the blockade. He was promoted to Vice-Admiral of the White while still at sea, on 23 April 1804.[225] In January 1805, the French fleet, under the command of Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, escaped Toulon and eluded the blockading British. Nelson set off in pursuit, but after searching the eastern Mediterranean, learnt the French had been blown back into Toulon.[226] Villeneuve managed to break out a second time in April, and this time, succeeded in passing through the Strait of Gibraltar, and into the Atlantic—bound for the West Indies.[226]
Nelson gave chase, but after arriving in the Caribbean, spent June in a fruitless search for the fleet. Villeneuve had briefly cruised around the islands, before heading back to Europe, in contravention of Napoleon's orders.[227] The returning French fleet was intercepted by a British fleet, under Sir Robert Calder, and engaged in the Battle of Cape Finisterre, but managed to reach Ferrol with only minor losses.[228] Nelson returned to Gibraltar at the end of July, and travelled from there to England, dismayed at his failure to bring the French to battle and expecting to be censured.[229]
To his surprise, he was given a rapturous reception from crowds who had gathered to view his arrival. Senior British officials congratulated him for sustaining the close pursuit, crediting him with saving the West Indies from a French invasion.
Captain
Nelson returned briefly to Merton to set his affairs in order, and bid farewell to Emma, before travelling back to London and then on to Portsmouth; arriving there early on the morning of 14 September. He breakfasted at the George Inn with his friends
Victory joined the British fleet off Cádiz, on 27 September, and Nelson took over from Vice Admiral
Battle of Trafalgar, 1805
Preparation
The combined French and Spanish fleet under Villeneuve's command numbered thirty-three ships of the line. Napoleon had intended for Villeneuve to sail into the English Channel and cover a planned invasion of Britain. However, the entry of Austria and Russia into the war forced Napoleon to call off this invasion, and transfer troops to Germany. Villeneuve had been reluctant to risk engagement with the British and this reluctance led Napoleon to send Vice-Admiral François Rosily to Cádiz, in order to take command of the fleet. Rosily was then to sail it into the Mediterranean and land troops at Naples, before making port at Toulon.[237] Villeneuve decided to sail the fleet out before his successor could arrive.[237] On 20 October 1805, the fleet was sighted making its way out of harbour, by patrolling British frigates, and Nelson was informed that they appeared to be heading to the west.[240]
At four o'clock in the morning of 21 October, Nelson ordered the Victory to turn towards the approaching enemy fleet, and signalled the rest of his force to battle stations. He then went below and made out his will, before returning to the quarterdeck to carry out an inspection.[241] Despite having twenty-seven ships to Villeneuve's thirty-three, Nelson was confident of success, declaring that he would not be satisfied with taking fewer than twenty prizes.[241] He returned briefly to his cabin to write a final prayer, after which he joined Victory's signal lieutenant, John Pasco.
Mr Pasco, I wish to say to the fleet "England confides that every man will do his duty". You must be quick, for I have one more signal to make, which is for close action.[242]
Pasco suggested changing confides to expects which, being in the Signal Book, could be signalled by the use of a single code (three flags), whereas confides would have to be spelt out letter by letter. Nelson agreed, and the signal was hoisted.[242]
As the fleets converged, Victory's Captain Thomas Hardy, suggested that Nelson remove the decorations on his coat, so that he would not be so easily identified by enemy sharpshooters. Nelson replied that it was too late "to be shifting a coat", adding that they were "military orders and he did not fear to show them to the enemy".[d][244] Captain Henry Blackwood, of the frigate HMS Euryalus, suggested Nelson come aboard his ship to better observe the battle. Nelson refused, and also turned down Hardy's suggestion to let Admiral Sir Eliab Harvey's HMS Temeraire come ahead of Victory and lead the line into battle.[244]
Battle is joined
Victory came under fire, initially passing wide, but then with greater accuracy as the distances decreased. A cannonball struck and killed Nelson's secretary, John Scott, nearly cutting him in two. Hardy's clerk then took over, but he too, was almost immediately killed. Victory's wheel was shot away; another cannonball cut down eight marines. Standing next to Nelson on the quarterdeck, Hardy's shoe buckle was suddenly dented by a splinter. Nelson observed, "This is too warm work to last long."[245]
Victory had, by now, reached the enemy line and Hardy asked Nelson which ship to engage first. Nelson told him to take his pick, whereupon Hardy moved Victory across the stern of the 80-gun French flagship, Bucentaure.[245] Victory then came under fire from the 74-gun Redoutable, which was lying off Bucentaure's stern, as well as the 130-gun Santísima Trinidad. As sharpshooters from the enemy ships fired onto Victory's deck from their rigging, Nelson and Hardy continued directing and giving orders.[245]
Wounding and death
At a quarter-past one in the afternoon,[165] Hardy realised that Nelson was not by his side. He turned to see Nelson kneeling on the deck, supporting himself with his hand, before falling onto his side. Hardy rushed to him, at which point, Nelson smiled:
Hardy, I do believe they have done it at last .... my backbone is shot through.[245]
He had been hit by a musket ball, fired from the
You can do nothing for me. I have but a short time to live. My back is shot through.[247]
Nelson was made comfortable, fanned, and brought lemonade and watered wine to drink, after he complained of feeling hot and thirsty. He asked several times to see Hardy, who was on deck supervising the battle, and asked Beatty to remember him to Emma, his daughter, and his friends.[247]
Hardy came belowdecks to see Nelson, just after half-past two, and informed him that a number of enemy ships had surrendered. Nelson told him that he was sure to die, and begged him to pass his possessions on to Emma.
By now very weak, Nelson continued to murmur instructions to Burke and Scott, "fan, fan ... rub, rub ... drink, drink." Beatty had heard Nelson murmur, "Thank God I have done my duty", and when he returned, Nelson's voice had faded and his pulse was very weak.[248] Nelson looked up, as Beatty took his pulse, then closed his eyes. Scott, who remained by Nelson as he died, recorded his last words as, "God and my country".[249] Nelson died at half-past four in the afternoon, three hours after he had been shot.[248] He was 47 years old.
Return to England
Nelson's body was placed in a cask of
They brought me word, Mr Whitby from the Admiralty. "Show him in directly", I said. He came in, and with a pale countenance and faint voice, said, "We have gained a great Victory." – "Never mind your Victory", I said. "My letters—give me my letters" – Captain Whitby was unable to speak—tears in his eyes and a deathly paleness over his face made me comprehend him. I believe I gave a scream and fell back, and for ten hours I could neither speak nor shed a tear.[252]
King George III, on receiving the news, is alleged to have said, in tears, "We have lost more than we have gained."[253] The Times reported:
We do not know whether we should mourn or rejoice. The country has gained the most splendid and decisive Victory that has ever graced the naval annals of England; but it has been dearly purchased.[253]
Funeral
Nelson's body was unloaded from the Victory at the Nore. It was conveyed upriver, in Commander Sir George Grey's yacht Chatham, to Greenwich and placed inside a lead coffin. The lead coffin was then placed inside a wooden one, made from the mast of L'Orient, which had been salvaged after the Battle of the Nile.
He lay in state for three days in the
On 8 January 1806, the coffin was taken into the
Assessment
Nelson was regarded as a highly effective leader, and someone who was able to sympathise with the needs of his men. He based his command on love, rather than authority, inspiring both his superiors and his subordinates with his considerable courage, commitment and charisma—dubbed "the Nelson touch".[259][260] Nelson combined this talent with an adept grasp of strategy and politics, making him a highly successful naval commander. Admiral Togo, himself often called "the Nelson of the East", placed Nelson as among the greatest naval commanders in history—second only to Admiral Yi Sun-sin.[261] The memorandum Nelson wrote before Trafalgar expresses his attitude well: "No captain can do very wrong if he places his ship alongside that of the enemy."[262]
Nelson's personality was complex, often characterised by a desire to be noticed—both by his superiors and the public. He was easily flattered by praise, and dismayed when he felt he was not given sufficient credit for his actions.[263] This led him to take risks, and to enthusiastically publicise his resultant successes,[264] which was not always considered acceptable at the time.[265] Nelson was also highly confident in his abilities, determined and able to make important decisions.[266] His active career meant that he was considerably experienced in combat and was a shrewd judge of his opponents, able to identify and exploit his enemies' weaknesses.[259]
He was often prone to insecurities, however, as well as violent mood swings,[267] and was extremely vain; he loved to receive decorations and tributes.[268] Despite his personality, he remained a highly professional leader and was driven all his life by a strong sense of duty.[267] Nelson's fame reached new heights after his death, and he came to be regarded as one of Britain's greatest military heroes, ranked alongside the Duke of Marlborough and Duke of Wellington.[269] In the BBC's 100 Greatest Britons programme in 2002, Nelson was voted the ninth greatest Briton of all time.[270]
Aspects of Nelson's life and career were controversial, both during his lifetime and after his death. His affair with
Legacy
Nelson's influence continued long after his death, and saw periodic revivals of interest, especially during times of crisis in Britain. In the 1860s,
Nelson has been frequently depicted in art and literature; appearing in paintings by
The city of Nelson in New Zealand is named after him.[280]
A number of monuments and memorials were constructed across the country, and abroad, to honour his memory and achievements.
Nelson and his monuments are seen more critically in countries that felt the negative aspects of colonialism, and who may seek to revise their public history. Major public memorials in primary locations in some cities have been subject to protest and removal as conscious acts. In 1966, the Nelson Pillar in Dublin was blown up by Irish Republicans: a novelty folk song, "Up Went Nelson", topped the Irish pop charts in the wake of the explosion, while a newspaper article marking the 55th anniversary noted: "For many, the biggest surprise about the blowing up of Nelson's Pillar...is why it took 157 years. The resentment had run deep. Almost fifty years after the 1916 Rising an Englishman still towered over every other notable in the city, many groused."[286] Across the Atlantic, in the Caribbean in 2020, after years of campaigning, the Nelson Statue in National Heroes Square, Bridgetown, Barbados, was removed and placed in a museum. It had stood since 1813, in a central public space of the capital known until 1999 as Trafalgar Square. The Barbadian Prime Minister Mia Mottley said at the ceremony marking the statue's removal:
National Heroes Square must reflect our heroes. And ... while we accept that the statue of the vice admiral Lord Horatio Nelson is an important historic relic, it is not a relic to be placed in the National Heroes Square of a nation that has had to fight for too long to shape its destiny and to forge a positive future for its citizens.[287]
Titles
Nelson's titles, as inscribed on his coffin and read out at the funeral by the
The Most Noble Lord Horatio Nelson, Viscount and Baron Nelson, of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk, Baron Nelson of the Nile and of Hilborough in the said County, Knight of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath, Vice Admiral of the White Squadron of the Fleet, Commander in Chief of his Majesty's Ships and Vessels in the Mediterranean, Duke of Bronte in the Kingdom of Sicily, Knight Grand Cross of the Sicilian Order of St Ferdinand and of Merit, Member of the Ottoman Order of the Crescent, Knight Grand Commander of the Order of Saint Joachim.[288]
Nelson received large Naval Gold Medals for the battles of St Vincent, the Nile and, posthumously, Trafalgar, one of very few recipients of three such medals.[289] Nelson was granted a royal licence in 1802 to receive and wear the foreign Order of Saint Joachim.[290]
Following his victory at the
In 1799, Nelson was created Duke of Bronte (Italian: Duca di Bronte), of the Kingdom of Sicily (after 1816, existing in the nobility of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies), by King Ferdinand III of Sicily, and after briefly experimenting with the signature "Brontë Nelson of the Nile", he signed himself "Nelson & Brontë" for the rest of his life.[298] Nelson had no legitimate children; his daughter, Horatia, married the Reverend Philip Ward, with whom she had ten children before her death in 1881.[299]
Since Nelson died without legitimate issue, his viscountcy and his barony created in 1798, both "of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk", became extinct upon his death.
Armorial bearings
In honour of the Battle of the Nile in 1798, the Crown granted him an augmentation of honour blazoned On a chief wavy argent a palm tree between a disabled ship and a ruinous battery all issuant from waves of the sea all proper (deemed a notorious example of debased heraldry),[304] the Latin motto Palmam qui meruit ferat ("let him who has earned it bear the palm"), and added to his supporters a palm branch in the hand of the sailor and in the paw of the lion, and a "tri-colored flag and staff in the mouth of the latter".[305]
After Nelson's death, his elder brother and heir William Nelson, 1st Earl Nelson, was granted a further augmentation: On a fess wavy overall azure the word TRAFALGAR or.[306] This additional augmentation was not used by those who succeeded him in the earldom, including the present Earl Nelson.[307]
The
- In the Chief of the Arms a Palm Tree (emblematic of Victory) between a disabled Ship and a ruinous Battery, form striking memorials of the glorious event of 1 August (1798), in the Bay of Aboukir, near the Mouth of the Nile. In the Crest, the Chelengk (a more minute description of which I had the pleasure of delivering to your Ladyship) is an indication of the distinctions rendered to his Lordship's merits by the Grand Signior; and the Naval Crown may bear a striking allusion to his Lordship's victory in those Seas, where the Corona Navalis was first conferred by the Romans on persons who had eminently distinguished themselves in Naval combats. The Palm Branch in the hand of the Sailor, and in the paw of the Lion, is a continuation of the emblem in the Chief of the Arms, as well as allusive to the Motto, "Palmam qui meruit ferat" ("let he who earns the palm bear it"). The tri-coloured Flag of the subdued Enemy was added to, and involved with, the Colours in the mouth of the Lion, which had been granted to his Lordship in commemoration of his distinguished gallantry and services, on 14 February 1797. With regard to your Ladyship's question—whether Lord Nelson is, in consequence of the Royal Warrant, precluded from the use of his Crest of the San Josef (a ship he won in battle from the Spaniards), I have no hesitation in giving my decided opinion, that he may bear it, with his new Crest, at his own pleasure.[citation needed]
The herald Wilfrid Scott-Giles (d. 1982) wrote a jocular verse describing the successive augmentations to the Nelson arms, ending with the line "But where, alas! is Nelson's ancient cross?"[308]
-
Original coat of arms of the house of Nelson
-
Coat of arms after 1797
-
Coat of arms used after the Battle of the Nile. An example of debased heraldry.[304]
-
Coat of arms used by William Nelson
See also
- Bibliography of 18th–19th century Royal Naval history
- Nelson hold – grappling hold sometimes attributed to Nelson's tactics
- Turning a blind eye – pertaining to Nelson's use of a telescope to not see a signal
Notes
- ^ The spelling of the name was widely varied, and numerous versions exist even in current literature. Variations include Hinchinbroke, Hinchinbrooke, Hinchingbroke, Hinchingbrook and Hinchingbrooke.
- ^ The pressed copy in the British Library states "cruel" not "cursed", which Nelson artefacts specialist, Martyn Downer, argues alters the author's intended meaning significantly.
- Roger Knight, disputes the veracity of this story, calling it a "myth".[203]
- ^ Historian, Nicholas A. M. Rodger, disputes this claim, calling it a "myth" and saying that "[Nelson] was wearing an old uniform coat with inconspicuous cloth replicas of his decorations. There is no evidence that he deliberately sought or recklessly courted death, though he was certainly well enough aware of the risks of action".[243]
References
- ^ Sugden, 2004, p. 36
- ^ Pettigrew 1849, p. 1
- ^ a b Britannica 11th edition, p. 352
- ^ "Nelson the man | Royal Museums Greenwich". Rmg.co.uk. Retrieved 6 May 2022.
- ^ a b Hibbert 1994, p. 394
- ^ Nicolas, The Despatches and Letters of Lord Nelson, Vol, I p. 18
- ^ Sugden, 2004, p. 56
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 13
- ^ "Joining the Royal Navy". Nelson, Trafalgar and those who served. National Archives. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
- ^ a b Pettigrew 1849, p. 4
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 75.
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 81
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 464
- ^ Sugden 2004, pp. 92–93
- ^ Sugden 2004, pp. 95–97
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 103
- ^ "No. 11550". The London Gazette. 4 April 1775. p. 2.
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 106
- ^ Sugden 2004, pp. 109–111
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 113
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 126
- ^ White 2006, p. 87
- ^ Nelson. Nelson: The New Letters (2008). p. 166.
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 128
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 131
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 135
- ^ Goodwin 2002, p. 81
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 143
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 145
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 147
- ^ Oman 1987, p. 30
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 163
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 173
- ^ "Report from Colonel Polson on the capture of the fort at San Juan". "No. 12101". The London Gazette. 18 July 1780. p. 3.
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 168
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- ^ ISBN 978-0199924059.
- ^ Hill, Richard (1855). A week at Port Royal. Cornwall Chronicle Office. pp. 2–5. Retrieved 4 October 2010.
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- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 182
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 187
- ^ Grindal 2016 p. 14
- ^ Petley, Christer. 2018. ''Reflections on "Nelson's dark side"''. University of Southampton Slavery and Revolution project.
- ^ Cobbett's weekly political register, Volume 11 January to June. London: R. Bagshaw. 1807. pp. 295–296 [1].
- ^ letter of 10 June 1805; see Dane 1942, p. 261. Note that the more disputed material from this letter has been edited out of this wartime volume.
- ^ The Nelson Dispatch, Journal of the Nelson Society, vol. 3, pt. 12, Autumn 2020, pp. 724–743
- ISBN 978-1447299745
- ^ a b Downer, Martyn, 2017, Nelson's Lost Jewel: The Extraordinary Story of the Lost Diamond Chelengk, p. 77
- ^ a b Nicolas, The Despatches and Letters of Lord Nelson, Vol, 3 p. 231
- ^ Sugden 2013, p. 684
- ^ Nicolas, The Despatches and Letters of Lord Nelson, Vol, 6 p. 412
- ^ Pettigrew 1849, vol 2, p. 81
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 190
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 195
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 197
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 202
- ^ Sugden 2004, pp. 204–205
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 206
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 209
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 215
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 219
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 220
- ^ Sugden 2004, pp. 222–223
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- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 227
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- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 243
- ^ Sugden 2004
- ^ "El amargo infierno creado por los británicos que fueron por el azúcar de las islas caribeñas". BBC News Mundo (in Spanish). Retrieved 11 June 2023.
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- ^ Coleman 2001, p. 67
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 307
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- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 351
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- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 412
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- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 431
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 434
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 437
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 444
- ^ Sugden 2004, pp. 445–446
- ^ a b Sugden 2004, pp. 446–447
- ^ a b Sugden 2004, pp. 452–453
- ^ a b Sugden 2004, p. 455
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 461
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 471
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 487
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 493
- ^ Oman 1987, p. 127
- ^ Sugden 2004, pp. 509–510
- ^ Sugden 2004, pp. 513–514
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 522
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 533
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 537
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 546
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 550
- ^ a b Sugden 2004, p. 556
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 574
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 579
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 584
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 588
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 594
- ^ a b Sugden 2004, p. 603
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 641
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 647
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 683
- ^ Sugden 2004, pp. 21–22
- ^ Sugden 2004, p. 685
- ^ Oman 1987, p. 174
- ^ a b c Coleman 2001, p. 126
- ^ a b c Coleman 2001, p. 128
- ^ a b c Coleman 2001, p. 127
- ^ "Report of the battle from Jervis". "No. 13987". The London Gazette. 3 March 1797. pp. 211–213.
- ^ Coleman 2001, p. 120
- ^ a b c H.A. Doubleday; Lord Howard de Walden, eds. (1936). The Complete Peerage, Volume IX. St Catherine Press. pp. 462–463.
- ^ Coleman 2001, p. 130
- ^ "No. 14012". The London Gazette. 23 May 1797. p. 474.
- ^ Coleman 2001, p. 131
- ^ a b Hibbert 1994, p. 118
- ^ "Reports of the attack from Jervis and Nelson". "No. 14032". The London Gazette. 1 August 1797. pp. 716–717.
- ^ Coleman 2001, pp. 133–134
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 121
- ^ a b c Hibbert 1994, p. 122
- ^ "[2]."
- ISBN 978-1900151153.
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 123
- ^ p. 251, Nelson
- ^ Neurology Clinics. 1998; 16(4):919–935
- ^ a b Bradford 2005, p. 160
- ^ "Reports of the battle from Earl St Vincent and Nelson". "No. 14041". The London Gazette. 2 September 1797. pp. 835–836.
- ^ Bradford 2005, p. 162
- ^ a b Bradford 2005, p. 164
- ^ a b Bradford 2005, p. 166
- ^ a b Bradford 2005, p. 167
- ^ Bradford 2005, p. 168
- ^ Bradford 2005, p. 172
- ^ Lavery 2003, pp. 65–66
- ^ Lavery 2003, p. 101
- ^ Bradford 2005, pp. 176–177
- ^ Bradford 2005, pp. 188–189
- ^ Bradford 2005, p. 192
- ^ Bradford 2005, pp. 193–194
- ^ Bradford 2005, p. 196
- ^ Oman 1987, p. 252
- ^ Bradford 2005, p. 198
- ^ Bradford 2005, p. 200
- ^ a b Bradford 2005, p. 203
- ^ Bradford 2005, p. 205
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 142
- ^ Bradford 2005, p. 209
- ^ "Reports of the battle from Nelson". "No. 15065". The London Gazette. 2 October 1798. pp. 915–917.
- ^ Bradford 2005, p. 209. Bradford describes it as "the most complete victory ever recorded in naval history".
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- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-861412-8. Retrieved 27 August 2021 – via Oxford University Press. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
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- ^ "No. 15067". The London Gazette. 6 October 1798. p. 931.
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- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 187
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 190
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 193
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 194
- ^ "Castello Di Nelson | Sicilia | Maniace". icastelli.it.
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 197
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 203
- ^ Bradford, p. 250
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- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 204
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 205
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 211
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 212
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 216
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 224
- ^ a b Hibbert 1994, p. 230
- ^ a b Hibbert 1994, p. 235
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 237
- ^ "No. 15324". The London Gazette. 30 December 1800. pp. 8–9.
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 242
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 246
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 254
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 256
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 260
- ^ a b Hibbert 1994, p. 261
- ^ Knight 2005, p. 497.
- ^ Pocock 1987, p. 237
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 263
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 264
- ^ "Report of the battle from Nelson". "No. 15354". The London Gazette. 19 April 1801. pp. 402–404.
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 265
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 268
- ^ "No. 15366". The London Gazette. 19 May 1801. p. 549.
- ^ "No. 15393". The London Gazette. 4 August 1801. p. 948.
- ^ David Beamish. "List of Peerages". Retrieved 2 June 2011.
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 272
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 279
- ^ a b Hibbert 1994, p. 281
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 298
- ISBN 0-6708-4342-3
- ^ Coleman 2001, p. 298
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 323
- ^ Gurney, William Brodie; Gurney, Joseph (1803). The Trial of Edward Marcus Despard, Esquire: For High Treason, at the Session House, Newington, Surrey, On Monday the Seventh of February, 1803. London: M Gurney. p. 176.
- ^ Agnew, David (1886). "Book First – Chapter 10 – Section VIII". Protestant exiles from France, chiefly in the reign of Louis XIV; or, The Huguenot refugees and their descendants in Great Britain and Ireland. Volume 1 (Third ed.). For Private Circulation. p. 204. Retrieved 11 November 2020.
- ISBN 0-5930-5195-5.
- ^ Gillis, Bernadette (August 2014). A Caribbean Coupling Beyond Black and White: The Interracial Marriage of Catherine and Edward Marcus Despard and its Implications for British Views on Race, Class, and Gender during the Age of Reform (PDF). Durham, North Carolina: Graduate School of Duke University. pp. 51–52. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 326
- ^ "No. 15695". The London Gazette. 23 April 1804. p. 495.
- ^ a b Hibbert 1994, p. 336
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 337
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 338
- ^ a b Hibbert 1994, p. 339
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 350
- ^ a b Hibbert 1994, p. 351
- ISBN 978-0465037643.
- ^ Nicolas, The Despatches and Letters of Lord Nelson, Vol, VII p. 35 idem p. 36
- ^ Tom Pocock, Horatio Nelson p. 316
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 356
- ^ Southey 1922, The Life of Nelson, (1922 edition) p. 296
- ^ a b c Hibbert 1994, p. 362
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 360
- ^ a b Adkin 2007, p. 411
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 363
- ^ a b Hibbert 1994, p. 365
- ^ a b Hibbert 1994, p. 366
- ^ Rodger 2004.
- ^ a b Hibbert 1994, p. 368
- ^ a b c d Hibbert 1994, p. 370
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 371
- ^ a b Hibbert 1994, p. 372
- ^ a b c d e Hibbert 1994, p. 376
- ^ Hayward 2003, p. 63
- ^ a b Hibbert 1994, p. 378
- ^ Stott, Romie (19 February 2016). "The Scandalous Decision to Pickle Admiral Horatio Nelson in Brandy". Atlas Obscura. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
- ^ Hibbert 1994, p. 379
- ^ a b Hibbert 1994, p. 381
- ^ a b Hibbert 1994, p. 382
- ^ Hibbert, Christopher Nelson: A Personal History (1994) p. 382
- Sinclair, W.p. 453: London; Chapman & Hall, Ltd; 1909.
- ^ The Archaeological Journal, Volume 51. 1894. p. 160.
- ^ Lambert 2005, p. 316
- ^ a b Lambert 2004, pp. 107–108
- ^ Lambert 2004, xvii
- ISBN 978-8995442425.
- ^ "Nelson's Trafalgar Memorandum". www.bl.uk.
- ^ Lambert 2004, p. 44
- ^ Lambert 2004, p. 64
- ^ Warner, Oliver. (1976). Command at sea: great fighting admirals from Hawke to Nimitz. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 110. Internet Archive website Retrieved 19 July 2019.
- ^ Lambert 2004, pp. 52–53
- ^ a b Lambert 2004, p. 4
- ^ Lambert 2004, p. 151
- ^ Lee 2005, pp. 3–4
- ^ "Churchill voted greatest Briton". bbc.co.uk. 24 November 2002.
- ^ Oman 1987, pp. 571–572
- ^ Coleman 2001, p. 228
- ^ a b Lambert 2004, pp. 365–366
- ^ Lambert 2004, p. 340
- ^ Lambert 2004, p. 346
- ^ Lambert 2004, p. 354
- ^ Lambert 2004, p. 323
- ^ Fielding, J. W. "The Battle of the Nile: a Favorite Patriotic Song." New York: Printed & sold at J. Hewitt's Musical Repository, No. 59 Maiden Lane, 1804.
- ^ Attwood, Thomas and Thomas Cory "Nelson's Tomb: A Favourite Song, Sung by Mr. Incledon" London: Printed & sold by Goulding & Company. 117 New Bond St. & Westmorland St. Dublin.
- ^ "History of Nelson, New Zealand". Nelsonweb. 6 October 2011. Retrieved 22 January 2023.
- ^ Lambert 2004, p. 327
- ^ "The Nelson Monument in Montreal (1808)". Retrieved 7 October 2014.
- ^ Lambert 2004, p. 328
- ^ "Nelson, Horatio, Lord Nelson (1758–1805)". English Heritage. Retrieved 23 October 2012.
- ^ "Battle of Trafalgar: Once-a-year light on Nelson's death" (with video). BBC News Devon. 22 October 2021.
- ^ "On This Day: Nelson's Pillar in Dublin was blown up in 1966". IrishCentral.com. 8 March 2023.
- ^ "Barbados removes Nelson statue from National Heroes Square".
- ^ Joslin, Litherland and Simpkin, pp. 40, 41, 46
- ^ "Page 745 | Issue 15497, 13 July 1802 | London Gazette | The Gazette". www.thegazette.co.uk. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
- ^ "Admiral Nelson is given the Freedom of the City". Exeter Memories. Retrieved 17 October 2021.
- ^ "Freedom of the City". Oxford City Council. 31 August 2022. Retrieved 31 August 2022.
- Wales Online. 31 March 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
- ^ "House where Nelson given Haverfordwest honour for sale". BBC News. 22 June 2010. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
- ^ Pettigrew 1849, p. 96
- ^ "Worcester City Freemen". Worcestershire County Council. 31 August 2022. Retrieved 31 August 2022.
- ^ Lambert 2004, p. 237
- ^ Coleman 2001, p. 353
- ^ Oman 1987, p. 571
- ^ Haydn 1851, p. 550
- ^ Lambert 2004, p. 312
- ^ The Heraldry Society (2 April 2015). "Horatio Viscount Nelson". The Heraldry Society. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
- ^ Adkin 2007, p. 550
- ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica (9th & 10th editions)[3]
- ISBN 978-1434606631.
- ^ Foster, Joseph (1882). The Peerage, Baronetage and Knightage, of the British Empire for 1882; with the Orders of Knighthood. Westminster: Nichols and Sons. p. 494.
- ^ Montague-Smith, P.W. (ed.), Debrett's Peerage, Baronetage, Knightage and Companionage, Kelly's Directories Ltd, Kingston-upon-Thames, 1968, p. 822, "Earl Nelson".
- ^ Full text see file description in File:AugmentedArms Admiral HoratioNelson.svg
Bibliography
- Adkin, Mark (2007). The Trafalgar Companion: A Guide to History's Most Famous Sea Battle and the Life of Admiral Lord Nelson. London: Aurum Press. ISBN 978-1845130183.
- ISBN 1-8402-2202-6.
- Bryant, Arthur (1970). Nelson. London: Collins.
- Coleman, Terry (2001). Nelson: The man and the legend. Bloomsbury. ISBN 0-7475-5900-7.
- Dane, Clemence (1942). The Nelson Touch: An Anthology of Lord Nelson's Letters. London: Heinemann.
- ISBN 0-8117-1007-6.
- Grindal, Peter (2016). Opposing the Slavers: The Royal Navy's Campaign against the Atlantic Slave Trade. London: I.B. Tauris & Co. ISBN 978-1788312868.
- Haydn, Joseph (1851). The Book of Dignities. Longmans, Brown, Green, and Longmans.
- ISBN 1-5911-4351-9.
- ISBN 0-2014-0800-7.
- Howarth, David(1969). Trafalgar. The Nelson Touch. London: Collins.
- Howarth, David & Stephen (1988). Nelson. The Immortal Memory. London: J. M. Dent & Sons.
- Joslin, E.C.; Litherland, E.C.; Simpkin, B.T. (1988). British Battles and Medals. Spink. ISBN 0-9076-0525-7.
- ISBN 0-4650-3764-X.
- ISBN 0-5712-1222-0.
- ISBN 1-8406-7522-5.
- ISBN 0-7553-1041-1.
- Naish, George P. B. (1958). Nelson's Letters to his Wife and other documents 1785–1831. London: Navy Records Society.
- Nelson, Horatio, Lord Viscount, The Dispatches and Letters of Vice Admiral Lord Viscount Nelson: With Notes by Sir Nicholas Harris Nicolas G.C.M.G., The First Volume, 1777 to August 1794, Henry Colburn, London, 1844
- Nelson, Horatio, Lord Viscount, The Dispatches and Letters of Vice Admiral Lord Viscount Nelson: With Notes by Sir Nicholas Harris Nicolas G.C.M.G., The Third Volume, January 1798 to August 1799, Henry Colburn, London, 1845
- ISBN 0-340-40672-0.
- Pettigrew, Thomas (1849). Memoirs of the Life of Vice-Admiral, Lord Viscount Nelson, K. B., Duke of Bronte. London: T. & W. Boone.
- ISBN 0-370-31124-8.
- Sugden, John (2004). Nelson: A Dream of Glory. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-06097-X.
- Sugden, John (2013). Nelson: The Sword of Albion. New York: Henry Holt and Co. ISBN 978-080507807-7.
- ISBN 0-88254-505-1.
- Warner, Oliver (1958). A Portrait of Lord Nelson. London: Chatto & Windus.
- ISBN 1-84383-130-9.
- Wilkinson, Clennell (1931). Nelson. London: George G. Harrap.
Further reading
- ISBN 0-9551394-4-9.
- Callender, Sir Geoffrey (1912). The Life of Nelson. Longmans.
- Coleman, Terry (2004). The Nelson Touch: The Life and Legend. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517322-8.
- Hannay, David McDowall (1911). . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 352–358.
- Mahan, Captain A. T. (1897). The Life of Nelson: The Embodiment of the Sea Power of Great Britain. Little, Brown & Co.
- Pocock, Tom (1980). The Young Nelson in the Americas. Collins.
- Rodger, N. A. M.(2004). The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain 1649–1815. Allen Lane.
- Southey, Robert (1896). The Life of Nelson. Longmans, Green, and Company, 302 pages., E'book
- Vincent, Edgar (2003). Nelson: Love & Fame. Basic Books. ISBN 0-300-10260-7.
- Warner, Oliver (1959). Trafalgar. B. T. Batsford.
- Worrall, Simon (2005). "Battle of Trafalgar: Admiral Lord Nelson's Fatal Victory". National Geographic. 208 (4).
- Yonge, Charles Duke (1863). The History of the British Navy, Volumes I & II. Richard Bentley, London; Vol. I: 716 pages; Vol. II: 809 pages., E'book v1, E'book v2
- The Naval Chronicle, Volume 3. J. Gold. 1800. (reissued by ISBN 978-1-108-01842-5)
- The Naval Chronicle, Volume 6. J. Gold. 1806. (reissued by ISBN 978-1-108-01854-8)
External links
- Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by the Viscount Nelson
- Works by Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson at Internet Archive
- Works by Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Collections related to Nelson held by the National Maritime Museum
- The Nelson Society
- Norfolk Nelson Museum
- Original Letters Written by Horatio Nelson Archived 25 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine Shapell Manuscript Foundation
- An essay on Nelson in The Oxonian Review of Books[usurped]
- Nelson, history
- Review of A. T. Mahan's biography Archived 4 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine