Nelumbo nucifera
Nelumbo nucifera | |
---|---|
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Order: | Proteales |
Family: | Nelumbonaceae |
Genus: | Nelumbo |
Species: | N. nucifera
|
Binomial name | |
Nelumbo nucifera | |
Synonyms | |
Nelumbo nucifera, also known as sacred lotus, Indian lotus,
Lotus plants are adapted to grow in the
Under favorable circumstances, the seeds of this aquatic perennial may remain viable for many years, with the oldest recorded lotus germination being from seeds 1,300 years old recovered from a dry lakebed in northeastern China.[3] Therefore, the Chinese regard the plant as a symbol of longevity.
It has a very wide native distribution, ranging from central and northern India (at altitudes up to 1,400 m or 4,600 ft in the southern Himalayas
Names
Nelumbo nucifera is also known as Egyptian bean.[6][7]
Classification
The lotus is often confused with the true water lilies of the genus
While all modern
Botany
The lotus roots are planted in pond or river bottom soil, while the leaves float on the water's surface or are held well above it. The leaf stalks (petioles) can be up to 200 cm (6 ft 7 in) long, allowing the plant to grow in water to that depth,
Flower
The flowers are usually found on thick stems rising several centimeters above the leaves. They are showy and grow up to 30 cm (12 in) in diameter,[13] but fourteen inches (35 centimeters) has been frequently reported.[14][15][16]
Some cultivated varieties have extraordinary numbers of petals. For example, the Chinese variety qian ban lian ("thousand petals lotus") can have between 3000 and 4000 petals in a single blossom[17] and the Japanese variety ohmi myoren ("strange lotus") can have between 2000 and 5000 petals,[18] the greatest number recorded for any species of plant.
Researchers report that the lotus has the remarkable ability to
Seed
A fertilized lotus flower bears fruit that contains a cluster of 10 to 30 seeds. Each seed is ovoid 1–2.5 cm wide by 1–1.5 cm long with a brownish coat.
The traditional sacred lotus is only distantly related to
The genome of the sacred lotus was sequenced in May 2013.[24][25][26]
Cultivation
The sacred lotus grows in water up to 2.5 m (8 ft) deep. The minimum water depth is about 30 cm (12 in). In colder climates, having a deeper water level protects the tubers more effectively, and overall is helpful for better growth and flowering. The sacred lotus germinates at temperatures above 13 °C (55 °F).[27] Most varieties are not naturally cold-hardy, but may readily adapt to living outdoors year-round in USDA hardiness zones 6 through 11 (with some growers having success in zones as low as 4 or 5); the higher the zone's number, the greater the adaptability of the plants.[28] In the growing season, from April to September (in the northern hemisphere), the average daytime temperature needed is 23 to 27 °C (73 to 81 °F).[29] In regions with low light levels in winter, the sacred lotus has a period of dormancy. The tubers are not cold-resistant, if removed from water, and exposed to the air; when kept underwater in soil, the energy-rich tubers can overwinter temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F).[30] If the plants are taken out of the water for wintertime storage (mostly in exceptionally cold climates), the tubers and roots must be stored in a stable, frost-free location, such as a garage, preferably in a cardboard box or container filled completely with vermiculite or perlite. Care must be taken to fully insulate the tubers.[31][32]
Planting
The sacred lotus requires a
The first step of the cultivation is to plough the dry field. One round of manure is applied after ten days, before flooding the field. To support a quick initial growth, the water level is relatively low[36] and increases when plants grow. Then a maximum of approximately 4,000 per hectare (1,600/acre) with grid spacing of 1.2 by 2 metres (3 ft 11 in × 6 ft 7 in)[37] are used to plant directly into the mud 10–15 cm (3+7⁄8–5+7⁄8 in) below the soil surface.[38]
Harvest
The stolon is ready to harvest two to three months after planting. It must be harvested before flowering. Harvesting the stolon is done by manual labor. For this step, the field is not drained. The stolon is pulled out of the water by pulling and shaking the young leaves in the shallow water.[36]
The first leaves and flowers can be harvested three months after planting. Flowers can be picked every two days during summer and every three days during the colder season. Four months after planting, the production of flowers has its climax. The harvest of flowers is usually done by hand for three to four months.[36]
Seeds and seed pods can be harvested when they turn black four to eight months after planting. After sun drying for two to three days, they are processed by mechanical tools to separate seed coats and embryos.[36][30]
The rhizomes mature to a suitable stage for eating in approximately six to nine months.[38] Early varieties are harvested in July until September and late varieties from October until March, after the ponds or fields are drained.[30][31][36][38][39] The large, starch-rich rhizomes are easy to dig out of the drained soil.[36] In small-scale production, they are harvested by hand using fork-like tools.[30] In Japan and on bigger farms, manual labour harvesting is fully replaced by machines.[27]
Varieties and cultivars
Lotus varieties have been classified according to their use into three types: rhizome lotus, seed lotus, and flower lotus. Varieties that show more than one of these characteristics are classified by the strongest feature.[37] Regarding production area in China, rhizome lotus has the largest area with 200,000 ha (490,000 acres), followed by seed lotus with 20,000 ha (49,000 acres).[40]
Rhizome lotus
Rhizome lotus cultivars produce a higher yield and higher quality rhizomes than seed or flower lotus cultivars. Furthermore, this group grows tall and produces few to no flowers.[40][37]
Cultivars can be classified by harvest time or by the depth of rhizomes into these types:
- Pre-mature (early) cultivars are harvested before the end of July, serotinous (late) cultivars from September on, and mid-serotinous or mid-matutinal cultivars are in between these harvest times. Using pre-mature cultivars, rhizomes can be harvested earlier and sold for a higher price.[40]
- Adlittoral, deep, and intermediate cultivars are distinguished according to the depth in which the rhizomes grow underground. Adlittoral cultivars range from 10 to 20 cm (3.9 to 7.9 in) depth and are often premature. They develop faster due to higher temperatures in surface soil layers. When harvested in July, adlittorals have higher yields than deeper-growing cultivars, but not necessarily when harvested in September. Rhizomes of adlittoral cultivars are crisp and good for frying purposes. Deep cultivars grow more than 40 cm (16 in) deep. They are often serotinous and can harvest high yields. Their rhizomes are starch-rich.[40]
The main popular Nelumbo nucifera cultivars in China are Elian 1, Elian 4, Elian 5, 9217, Xin 1, and 00–01. The average yield of these cultivars is 7.5–15 t/ha (3.3–6.7 tons/acre) of harvest in July and 30–45 t/ha (13–20 tons/acre) of harvest in September.[40] In Australia, the cultivar grown for the fresh rhizome market in Guangdong and Japan, the common rhizome cultivars are Tenno and Bitchu.[37]
Seed lotus
The characteristics of seed lotus cultivars are a large number of carpels and seed sets as well as large seeds with better nutritional properties. Roots of these varieties are thin, fibrous, and do not form good rhizomes.[37] The main popular cultivars for seed production in China are Cunsanlian, Xianglian 1, Zilian 2, Jianlian, Ganlian 62, and Taikong 36. The average yield of these cultivars in China is 1.05–1.9 t/ha (0.5–0.8 tons/acre) of dry seeds and weight of thousand seeds between 1,020 and 1,800 g (36 and 63 oz).[40] Green Jade and Vietnam-Red are recommended cultivars for seed production in Australia.[37]
Flower lotus
Flower lotus cultivars are used exclusively for ornamental purpose, producing many flowers and the lowest plant height.[40]
The seed production of flower lotus is typically poor regarding yield and quality. Flower types differ in the number of petals (single petals, double petals, or multi-petals) and their colours range from single colour in white, yellow, pink, and red to bi-colour, most often of white petals with pink tips or highlights.[37]
The flowers are capable of producing ink used by artists such as Morrison Polkinghorne to produce abstract images of the landscapes of southern Asia.[41]
One example of a flower lotus is Wanlian. Also known as bowl lotus, wanlians are any miniature cultivars of N. nucifera sized between 5 and 8 centimetres (2.0 and 3.1 in). Bowl lotuses come in various colours and numbers of petals, and they bloom longer than other species of lotus. But together with the rhizome, their seeds are often too small or too hard to be eatable.[42]
The sacred lotus may be crossed with the
Farming
About 70% of lotus for human consumption is produced in China. In 2005, the cultivation area in China was estimated at 300,000 hectares (740,000 acres).[30] A majority of lotus production takes place in managed farming systems in ponds or flooded fields like rice.[40]
The most widely used system is crop rotation with rice and vegetables. This system is applicable if the propagule (small piece of rhizome) can be planted early in the year. The rhizomes are harvested in July, after which rice can be planted in the same field. Rice is then harvested in October. From November until March, the field stays either free or terricolous vegetables, such as cabbage or spinach, are planted. Alternatively, the vegetable can also be planted after the harvest of the lotus.[40]
Another alternative way is not to harvest the lotus rhizome, although it is ripe. A terricolous vegetable is planted between the rhizomes into the drained field. The rhizomes are then harvested next March.[40]
A third way is to plant lotus in ponds or fields and raise aquatic animals such as fish, shrimp, or crab in the same field.[40] A more efficient use of the water for both, the aquatic animal and the lotus production has been identified with this planting pattern.[44]
Use
Culinary
This section needs additional citations for verification. (December 2018) |
Rhizomes
The
Lotus root is a popular vegetable in Sri Lanka, where it is often cooked in coconut milk gravy. In India, lotus root (also known as kamal kakdi in Hindi) is cooked as a dry curry or sabzi.[50]
Japan is one of the primary users of the rhizomes, representing about 1% of all vegetables consumed. Japan grows its own lotus but still must import 18,000 tons of lotus rhizome each year, of which China provides 15,000 tons yearly.[51]
Rhizomes contain high amounts of starch (31.2%) without characteristic taste or odor. The texture is comparable to a raw potato.[52] The binding and disintegration properties of isolated Nelumbo starch have been compared with maize and potato starch; Nelumbo starch is shown to be superior as an adjuvant in the preparation of tablets.[53] When dried, N. nucifera is also made into flour, another popular use of this vegetable.[46][47]
Pips
Seeds
Fresh lotus seeds (
Dry stored lotus seeds are sensitive to moisture and
Lotus seeds can be processed into
Stems
Young lotus stems are used as a salad ingredient in Vietnamese cuisine and as a vegetable ingredient for some soup and curry in Thailand, such as keang som sai bua (Thai: แกงส้มสายบัว, lotus stem sour soup) and keang kati sai bua (แกงกะทิสายบัว, lotus stem in coconut milk curry).
In northern and eastern regions of India, the stalk of the flower is used to prepare a soup, kamal gatte ki sabji (
In the Philippines, an indigenous variety called tukal is used as the main ingredient in dishes with coconut milk. The stems and petals can be bought in markets when in season.
Leaves
In China and Korea,
Vietnamese also use lotus leaves to wrap green young rice, cốm, which is eaten in autumn. The leaves impart a unique scent to the soft, moist rice.
Flowers
In Korea,
: yeon'kkot-cha) is made from the dried petals of the white lotus.The stamens can be dried and made into a fragrant herbal tea (Chinese: 蓮花茶; pinyin: liánhuā cha; Cantonese Yale: lìhnfāa chah), or used to impart a scent to tea leaves (particularly in Vietnam). This Vietnamese lotus tea is called trà sen, chè sen, or chè ướp sen.
Risks
The petals, leaves, and
Use in water treatment
Nelumbo nucifera shows high potential for usage in wastewater treatment removing polluting compounds[59] and heavy metals.[60][61][62] It is able to grow in variable water conditions[63] and in low light intensity.[59] Various studies show the successful use of N. nucifera to counteract water eutrophication.[59][64] The leaves of the floating lotus reduce sunlight reaching the lower part of the water. This suppresses algae growth in N. nucifera aquatic systems and thus, the oxygen content is up to 20% higher than in other aquatic plant systems.[59] Due to intense agricultural practices, nitrogen and phosphorus pollution are major problems in aquatic systems. N. nucifera is able to assimilate a higher content of phosphorus than aquatic plants currently used for water remediation (such as water hyacinth). It also assimilates nitrogen ("denitrification") and creates a habitat for bacterial growth in the water body.[59] Through rhizofiltration, heavy metals – including arsenic, copper, and cadmium – can be removed efficiently from the water.[60][61] The results observed are impressive showing 96% of copper and 85% cadmium metals removed after a seven-day incubation period.[61] The accumulation of heavy metals doesn't show morphological symptoms of metal toxicity;[62] however, the rhizome quality for human consumption needs further study.
Storage and commercialization
Currently, most rhizomes are consumed fresh, and it is not common to store them due to their poor shelf life performance.[65] This limits export possibilities for low-income production countries in Asia. Rhizomes quickly lose water, oxidation occurs and nutrient composition changes within a short time after harvest. Optimal storage temperatures range between 5 and 8 °C (41 and 46 °F).[65] There are three different approaches to storing rhizomes. By stacking the rhizomes, they are storable and remain fresh for about three weeks. Special stacking with silver sand[clarification needed] and soil results in five to six layers that prevent water loss, thus, the rhizome stays fresh for up to two months.[65] However, the method is not suitable for commercialization but rather for home use. Hydrogen sulfide fumigation reduces enzymatic browning and therefore ensures rhizome quality.[61] Dipping the rhizomes in a salt solution prevents oxidation and bacterial reproduction, which allows storage for up to five months and greater export ability. This treatment is related to the high cost and inefficient cleaning process before eating the rhizomes.[clarification needed][65]
Use in bioengineering
Nelumbo nucifera contains some thermal-stable proteins that might be useful in protein
Other uses
The distinctive dried seed heads, which resemble the spouts of watering cans, are widely sold throughout the world for decorative purposes and for dried flower arranging.
In Asia, the petals are sometimes used for garnish, while the large leaves are used as a wrap for food, not frequently eaten (for example, as a wrapper for zongzi). Lotus leaves are also used to serve food in various cultures.[69]
A unique fabric called
Chemical composition
The flavonol
Health properties and nutrients
Traditional medicine
This section needs more primary sources. (December 2017) |
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
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Energy | 278 kJ (66 kcal) |
16.02 g | |
Sugars | 0.50 g |
Dietary fiber | 3.1 g |
0.07 g | |
1.58 g | |
Niacin (B3) | 2% 0.3 mg |
Pantothenic acid (B5) | 6% 0.302 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 13% 0.218 mg |
Folate (B9) | 2% 8 μg |
Choline | 5% 25.4 mg |
Vitamin C | 30% 27.4 mg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Calcium | 2% 26 mg |
Iron | 5% 0.9 mg |
Magnesium | 5% 22 mg |
Manganese | 10% 0.22 mg |
Phosphorus | 6% 78 mg |
Potassium | 8% 363 mg |
Sodium | 2% 45 mg |
Zinc | 3% 0.33 mg |
Other constituents | Quantity |
Water | 81.42 g |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults.[73] |
All parts of Nelumbo nucifera are edible, with the rhizome and seeds being the main consumption parts. Traditionally rhizomes, leaves, and seeds have been used as
Lotus rhizomes and seeds and their processing by-products are widely consumed in Asia, the Americas, and Oceania for high content of physiologically
These days the perennial aquatic herb is gaining popularity because of its nutraceutical and historical importance[77][58] It will be of economic value if the different parts of lotus can be developed as functional food.[75][58] Because of its special role in human health and richness in nutrients and bioactive substances, the Chinese Ministry of Health approved the use of N. nucifera as both "food and medicine."[80]
Rhizomes
The rhizomes are 60–14 cm (23.6–5.5 in) long, 0.5–2.5 cm (0.20–0.98 in) in diameter, yellowish white to yellowish brown, smooth, and with
Lotus root is a moderate-calorie root vegetable (100 g of root stem provides about 74 calories) and is composed of several
Lotus rhizome and its extracts have shown diuretic,
Seeds
Lotus seeds are mostly oval or spherical, with sizes varying according to varieties. They are generally 1.2–1.8 cm long, with diameters ranging from 0.8 to 1.4 cm and a weight of 1.1–1.4 g. After lotus seeds have been decorticated and peeled, they are edible and rich in nutrients and can be dried for storage. Their nutritional values can differ due to culture environments and varieties.[88]
Not only do these seeds contain
Lotus seeds also contain particularly large amounts of vitamins, including
The functional components (polyphenols, protein, polysaccharides) in N. nucifera seeds can help combat high
After lotus seed germination, crude protein and fat levels in the endosperm significantly increase. It is therefore an important method to enhance its nutritional quality.[94][58]
-
Lotus field
-
Fruit; the dried seed cup is commonly used in flower arrangements.
-
Developing fruit
-
Bud of Nelumbo nucifera
-
Bud
-
Flower
Cultural and religious significance
Nelumbo nucifera is a lotus species with historical cultural and spiritual significance. It is a sacred flower in both Hinduism and Buddhism,[95] representing the path to spiritual awakening and enlightenment. In Christianity, the lotus flower is often associated with the apostle Thomas and his coming to India.[96] The lotus flower is also mentioned in the bible.[97]
In Asian art, a lotus throne is a stylized lotus flower used as the seat or base for a figure. It is the normal pedestal for divine figures in Buddhist art and Hindu art and is often seen in Jain art. Originating in Indian art, it followed Indian religions to East Asia in particular. Lotus flowers are also often held by figures.[98][99][100][101][102]
The Nelumbo nucifera, which is also called (Nilufar Abi in Persian), can be seen in many reliefs of the Achaemenid period (552 BC) such as the statue of
The lotus flower also holds cultural and religious significance in Ismaili Muslim and related South Asian traditions. For example, in South Asian Ismaili literature, the lotus is compared to the pure soul. A poem describes the lotus' beauty, describing how its delicate white petals remain pure and beautiful, despite its murky environment. Similarly, a pure soul is part of this world, yet is not of this world, much like the circumstances of the lotus. The poem further emphasizes the importance of true knowledge or gnosis, which is likened to the pure rainwater that allows the lotus to flourish. Ismaili belief holds that the true guide provides this true knowledge, without which the pure soul cannot survive. Just as the lotus flower would rather die than drink from a reeking swamp, the pure soul also seeks nourishment solely through true knowledge.[103]
See also
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- ^ Virani, Shafique (2005-01-01). "Symphony of Gnosis: A Self-Definition of the Ismaili Ginan Literature". Reason and Inspiration in Islam: Theology, Philosophy and Mysticism in Muslim Thought: 507.
- Getty, Alice, The gods of northern Buddhism : their history, iconography and progressive evolution through the northern Buddhist countries, 1914, Oxford, fully online
External links
- "Lotus Symbol in Vietnamese Culture". Archived from the original on 2015-05-30. Retrieved 2015-05-18.
- Lotus Flower for aquarium