Louis I of Hungary
Louis I the Great | |
---|---|
Hedwig, Queen of Poland | |
House | Anjou |
Father | Charles I of Hungary |
Mother | Elizabeth of Poland |
Religion | Catholic Church |
Louis I, also Louis the Great (
Louis was of age when he succeeded his father in 1342, but his deeply religious mother exerted a powerful influence on him. He inherited a centralized kingdom and a rich treasury from his father. During the first years of his reign, Louis launched a
Like his father, Louis administered Hungary with absolute power and used
Louis inherited Poland after his uncle's death in 1370. Since he had no sons, he wanted his subjects to acknowledge the right of his daughters to succeed him in both Hungary and Poland. For this purpose, he issued the
Childhood and youth (1326–1342)
Born on 5 March 1326,
He had a liberal education by the standards of his age and learned French, German and Latin.[5] He showed a special interest in history and astrology.[1][6] A cleric from Wrocław, Nicholas, taught him the basic principles of Christian faith.[7] However, Louis's religious zeal was due to his mother's influence.[8] In a royal charter, Louis remembered that in his childhood, a knight of the royal court, Peter Poháros, often carried him on his shoulders.[7][9] His two tutors, Nicholas Drugeth and Nicholas Tapolcsányi, saved the lives of both Louis and his younger brother, Andrew, when Felician Záh attempted to assassinate the royal family in Visegrád on 17 April 1330.[7][10]
Louis was only nine when he stamped a treaty of alliance between his father and
Casimir III's first wife,
Louis received the title of Duke of Transylvania from his father in 1339, but he did not administer the province.[12][21] According to a royal charter from the same year, Louis's bride, Margaret of Bohemia, lived in the Hungarian royal court.[12] Louis's separate ducal court was first mentioned in a royal charter of 1340.[12]
Reign
First years (1342–1345)
Charles I died on 16 July 1342.
Louis introduced a new system of land grants, excluding the grantee's brothers and other kinsmen from the donation in contrast with customary law: such estates
According to the nearly contemporaneous chronicle of
Louis joined a
While Louis's armies were fighting in Poland and against the Tatars, Louis marched to
Gallery
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Louis's first royal seal, lost during a campaign in Bosnia in 1363
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Louis's second royal seal, introduced in 1363
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Privilege of Kassa (Košice)
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The Golden Cloak clasp, Hungarian Chapel in the Cathedral of Aachen
Neapolitan campaigns (1345–1350)
Louis's brother Andrew was murdered in Aversa on 18 September 1345.[58] Louis and his mother accused Queen Joanna I, Prince Robert of Taranto, Duke Charles of Durazzo, and other members of the Neapolitan branches of the Capetian House of Anjou of plotting against Andrew.[58][59] In his letter of 15 January 1346 to Pope Clement VI, Louis demanded that the pope dethrone the "husband-killer" queen in favor of Charles Martel, her infant son by Andrew.[59] Louis also laid claim to the regency of the kingdom during the minority of his nephew, referring to his patrilinear descent from the first-born son of Robert the Wise's father, Charles II of Naples.[60] He even promised to increase the amount of yearly tribute that the kings of Naples would pay to the Holy See.[60] After the pope failed to fully investigate Andrew's murder, Louis decided to invade southern Italy.[61] In preparation for the invasion, he sent his envoys to Ancona and other Italian towns before summer 1346.[62]
While his envoys negotiated in Italy, Louis marched to Dalmatia to relieve Zadar, but the Venetians bribed his commanders.[63][64] When the citizens broke out and attacked the besiegers on 1 July, the royal army failed to intervene, and the Venetians overcame the defenders outside the walls of the town.[64][65] Louis withdrew but refused to renounce Dalmatia, although the Venetians offered to pay 320,000 golden florins as compensation.[64] Lacking military support from Louis, however, Zadar surrendered to the Venetians on 21 December 1346.[66]
Louis sent small expeditions one after one to Italy at the beginning of his war against Joanna, because he did not want to harass the Italians who had suffered from a famine the previous year.
Queen Joanna remarried, wedding a cousin,
Louis marched to Naples in February.
The arrival of the Black Death forced Louis to leave Italy in May.[74][78][86] He made Ulrich Wolfhardt governor of Naples, but his mercenaries did not hinder Joanna I and her husband from returning in September.[74] Louis, who had signed a truce for eight years with Venice on 5 August, sent new troops to Naples under the command of Stephen Lackfi, Voivode of Transylvania, in late 1349.[87][88] Lackfi reoccupied Capua, Aversa and other forts that had been lost to Joanna I, but a mutiny among his German mercenaries forced him to return to Hungary.[88][89] The Black Death had meanwhile reached Hungary.[90] The first wave of the epidemic ended in June, but it returned in September, killing Louis's first wife, Margaret.[89][90] Louis also fell ill, but survived the plague.[91] Although the Black Death was less devastating in the sparsely populated Hungary than in other parts of Europe, there were regions that became depopulated in 1349, and the demand for work force increased in the subsequent years.[90][92]
Louis proposed to renounce the Kingdom of Naples if Clement dethroned Joanna.[93] After the pope refused, Louis departed for his second Neapolitan campaign in April 1350.[89][94] He suppressed a mutiny that occurred among his mercenaries while he and his troops were waiting for the arrival of further troops in Barletta.[95] While marching towards Naples, he faced resistance at many towns because his vanguards, which were under the command of Stephen Lackfi, had become notorious for their cruelty.[96][97]
During the campaign, Louis personally led assaults and climbed city walls together with his soldiers, endangering his own life.
To celebrate the
Expansion (1350–1358)
Casimir III of Poland urged Louis to intervene in his war with the Lithuanians who had occupied
To deal with the grievances of the Hungarian noblemen, Louis held a Diet in late 1351.[112] He confirmed all but one of the provisions of the Golden Bull of 1222, declaring that all noblemen enjoyed the same liberties in his realms.[113][114] He rejected only the provision that authorized noblemen who died without a son to freely bequeath their estates.[115] Instead, he introduced an entail system, prescribing that the estates of a nobleman who had no male descendants passed to his kinsmen, or if there were no male relatives to the Crown, upon his death.[clarification needed][114][115] At the same Diet, Louis ordered that all landowners were to collect the "ninth", that is one tenth of specified agricultural products, from the peasants who held plots on their estates.[116] On the other hand, he confirmed the right of all peasants to freely move to another landowner's estates.[117]
The "general accord" between Louis and the royal couple of Naples "was accepted by both sides" during 1351, according to the contemporaneous
Casimir III laid siege to
Although Louis signed an alliance with the
According to Matteo Villani, Louis launched an expedition against the Golden Horde at the head of an army of 200,000 horsemen in April 1354.
In summer 1356, Louis invaded Venetian territories without a formal declaration of war.
Louis marched to Dalmatia in July 1357.
Wars in the Balkans (1358–1370)
Serbia
Louis and the royal army stayed in Transylvania in November 1359 and January 1360, implying that he planned a military expedition against
Upon the pope's request, Louis sent Hungarian troops to relieve Bologna, which was besieged by Bernabò Visconti's troops.[152] After Visconti lifted the siege, Louis's mercenaries pillaged the region and refused to cooperate with the papal legate; Louis had the commander of the army imprisoned.[159] After a conflict emerged between Emperor Charles IV and Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria, rumors spread about a conspiracy to dethrone the emperor in favor of Louis or Rudolf.[160][161] Charles IV, Rudolf IV and Louis met in Nagyszombat (now Trnava in Slovakia) in May.[161] The emperor and the duke mutually surrendered their claims to the other party's realms.[160] Louis also persuaded the emperor to renounce his suzerainty over the Duchy of Płock in Poland.[161]
Louis decided to convert the
Emperor Charles IV and Rudolf IV of Austria signed a treaty of alliance against the patriarch of Aquileia, who was Louis's ally, in August 1361.[160][166] Fearing the formation of a coalition along the western borders of Hungary, Louis asked his former enemy, Louis of Taranto (Joanna I's husband), to send at least one of his brothers to Buda, and mediated a reconciliation between Rudolph IV and the patriarch.[167] At a meeting with Louis's envoys in Prague, Emperor Charles made an insulting remark about Louis's mother, stating that she "was shameless",[168] according to Jan Długosz's chronicle.[24][169] Louis demanded an apology, but the emperor did not answer.[161]
In preparation for a war against Bohemia, Louis ordered the mobilization of the royal army and marched to Trencsén (now Trenčín in Slovakia).[24][170] However, his supposed allies (Rudolf IV of Austria, Meinhard III of Tyrol and Casimir III of Poland) failed to join him, and the emperor initiated negotiations that lasted for months with the mediation of Casimir III.[170] Louis was finally reconciled with Charles IV at their meeting in Uherské Hradiště on 8 May 1363.[170]
Louis invaded Bosnia from two directions in the spring of 1363.
Louis signed a treaty with Emperor Charles and Rudolf IV of Austria in Brno in early 1364, which put an end to their conflicts.[175] In September, Louis visited Kraków to attend the large congress where Peter I of Cyprus attempted to persuade a dozen European monarchs to join the crusade.[176] Louis was the only monarch to promise assistance, but later failed to fulfill his promise.[172][177] At the congress, Casimir III of Poland confirmed Louis's right to succeed him in Poland if he died without a male issue.[178] Louis, who had not fathered a son either, invited a distant relative of his, Charles of Durazzo, to Hungary in 1364, but did not make the young prince his official heir.[37] Louis allowed the Jews to return to Hungary in the same year; legal proceedings between the Jews and those who had seized their houses lasted for years.[179]
Louis assembled his armies in
The
Louis stayed in Transylvania between June and September 1366, implying that he waged war against Moldavia.[189] He issued a decree authorizing the Transylvanian noblemen to pass judgments against "malefactors belonging to any nation, especially Romanians".[190] He also decreed that testimony of a Romanian knez who had received a royal charter of grant weighed the same as that of a nobleman.[191] In the same year, Louis granted the Banate of Severin and the district of Fogaras to Vladislav Vlaicu of Wallachia, who had accepted his suzerainty.[192][193] Tvrtko I of Bosnia also accepted Louis's suzerainty after Hungarian troops assisted him in regaining his throne in early 1367.[194]
Louis made attempts to convert his pagan or "schismatic" subjects to Catholicism, even by force.
Vladislav Vlaicu of Wallachia made an alliance with
From the late 1360s, Louis suffered from a
Union with Poland and reforms (1370–1377)
Casimir III of Poland died on 5 November 1370.
During a war between Emperor Charles IV and
Louis and the representatives of the Polish nobility started negotiations of Louis's succession in Poland in the autumn of 1373.[224] After a year of negotiations, he issued the so-called Privilege of Koszyce on 17 September 1374, reducing the tax that Polish noblemen paid to the king by about 84% and promising a remuneration to noblemen who participated in foreign military campaigns.[226] In exchange, the Polish lords confirmed the right of Louis's daughters to inherit Poland.[224]
Louis invaded Wallachia in May 1375, because the new prince of Wallachia,
From the middle of the 1370s, the Lackfis' influence diminished and new favorites emerged in the royal court.
The Lithuanians made raids in Halych, Lodomeria, and Poland, almost reaching Kraków in November 1376.
Last years (1377–1382)
Tvrtko I of Bosnia had himself crowned king, adopting the title of "King of Serbia, Bosnia and the Coastland", in 1377.[244] Whether Louis had approved Tvrtko's coronation cannot be decided.[244][245] A new war broke out between Venice and Genoa in 1378.[246] Louis supported the Genoese and Trogir became the regular base of the Genoese fleet, which transformed Dalmatia into an important theater of war.[239][246] Louis also sent reinforcements to Francesco I da Carrara to fight against the Venetians.[239]
The cardinals who had turned against Pope Urban VI elected a new pope, Clement VII on 20 September 1378, which gave rise to the Western Schism.[239] Louis acknowledged Urban VI as the legitimate pope and offered him support to fight against his opponents in Italy.[239][247] As Joanna I of Naples decided to join Clement VII's camp, Pope Urban excommunicated and dethroned her on 17 June 1380.[248] The pope acknowledged Charles of Durazzo, who had lived in Louis's court, as the lawful king of Naples.[248] After Charles of Durazzo promised that he would not claim Hungary against Louis's daughters, Louis dispatched him to invade Southern Italy at the head of a large army.[8][249] Within a year, Charles of Durazzo occupied the Kingdom of Naples, and forced Queen Joanna to surrender to him on 26 August 1381.[250][251]
The envoys of Louis and Venice had meanwhile started negotiations on a
Royal charters referred to military actions in Lodomeria and Wallachia in the first half of 1382, but no further information of those wars was preserved.
Family
Ancestors of Louis I of Hungary Hedwig of Kalisz | | |||||||||||||||
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30. Béla IV of Hungary | ||||||||||||||||
15. Yolanda of Hungary | ||||||||||||||||
31. Maria Laskarina | ||||||||||||||||
Louis's first wife,
According to the
Louis married his second wife,
Legacy
Louis was the only Hungarian monarch to receive the epithet "
In the age of Romantic nationalism, Hungary during Louis's reign was described as an empire "whose shores were washed by three seas" in reference to the Adriatic, Baltic and Black Seas.[61][207] For instance, in 1845 the poet Sándor Petőfi referred to Louis's reign as a period when "the falling stars of the north, the east and the south were all extinguished in Hungarian seas".[109] Poland remained an independent country during Louis's reign and its borders did not extend to the Baltic Sea, and Louis's suzerainty along the northwestern shores of the Black Sea was also uncertain.[61]
In Polish historiography, two contrasting evaluation of Louis's reign in Poland coexisted.[274] The "pessimistic" tradition can be traced back to the views of the late 14th-century Jan of Czarnków, who was banished from Poland during Louis's reign.[275] Czarnków emphasized that "there was no stability in the Kingdom of Poland" and the royal officials "continually pillaged the property of the poor people" during Louis's reign.[276] According to the "optimistic" historiographic tradition, Louis continued Casimir the Great's policy of preserving the unity of Poland against the separatist magnates of Greater Poland with the assistance of lords from Lesser Poland.[277]
John of Küküllő emphasized that Louis "ruled neither with passion, nor with arbitrariness, but rather as the guardian of righteousness".[207] Antonio Bonfini also described Louis as a just king wandering among his subjects in disguise to protect them the royal officials' arbitrary acts.[278] Even Jan of Czarnków underlined that Louis "did not rule in an absolute manner; on the contrary, the foundations ... of [the Poles'] freedom were laid by him".[279]
New palaces and castles built at
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Sources
Primary sources
- The Annals of Jan Długosz (An English abridgement by Maurice Michael, with commentary by Paul Smith) (1997). IM Publications. ISBN 1-901019-00-4.
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Secondary sources
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- Csukovits, Enikő (2012). "I. (Nagy) Lajos". In Gujdár, Noémi; Szatmáry, Nóra (eds.). Magyar királyok nagykönyve: Uralkodóink, kormányzóink és az erdélyi fejedelmek életének és tetteinek képes története [Encyclopedia of the Kings of Hungary: An Illustrated History of the Life and Deeds of Our Monarchs, Regents and the Princes of Transylvania] (in Hungarian). Reader's Digest. pp. 116–119. ISBN 978-963-289-214-6.
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- Goldstone, Nancy (2009). The Lady Queen: The Notorious Reign of Joanna I, Queen of Naples, Jerusalem, and Sicily. Walker&Company. ISBN 978-0-8027-7770-6.
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- Kłoczowski, Jerzy (1986). "Louis the Great as King of Poland as Seen in the Chronicle of Janko of Czarnkow". In Vardy, S. B.; Grosschmid, Géza; Domonkos, Leslie (eds.). Louis the Great, King of Hungary and Poland. Boulder. pp. 129–154. ISBN 0-88033-087-2.
- Knoll, Paul W. (1972). The Rise of the Polish Monarchy: Piast Poland in East Central Europe, 1320–1370. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-44826-6.
- Kontler, László (1999). Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary. Atlantisz Publishing House. ISBN 963-9165-37-9.
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- Lukowski, Jerzy; Zawadski, Hubert (2006). A Concise History of Poland. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-61857-1.
- Magaš, Branka (2007). Croatia Through History. SAQI. ISBN 978-0-86356-775-9.
- Makkai, László (1994). "The Emergence of the Estates (1172–1526)". In Köpeczi, Béla; Barta, Gábor; Bóna, István; Makkai, László; Szász, Zoltán; Borus, Judit (eds.). History of Transylvania. Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 178–243. ISBN 963-05-6703-2.
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- Pop, Ioan-Aurel (2005). "Romanians in the 14th–16th Centuries: From the "Christian Republic" to the "Restoration of Dacia"". In Pop, Ioan-Aurel; Bolovan, Ioan (eds.). History of Romania: Compendium. Romanian Cultural Institute (Center for Transylvanian Studies). pp. 209–314. ISBN 978-973-7784-12-4.
- Sălăgean, Tudor (2005). "Romanian Society in the Early Middle Ages (9th–14th Centuries AD)". In Pop, Ioan-Aurel; Bolovan, Ioan (eds.). History of Romania: Compendium. Romanian Cultural Institute (Center for Transylvanian Studies). pp. 133–207. ISBN 978-973-7784-12-4.
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- Solymosi, László; Körmendi, Adrienne (1981). "A középkori magyar állam virágzása és bukása, 1301–1506 [The Heyday and Fall of the Medieval Hungarian State, 1301–1526]". In Solymosi, László (ed.). Magyarország történeti kronológiája, I: a kezdetektől 1526-ig [Historical Chronology of Hungary, Volume I: From the Beginning to 1526] (in Hungarian). Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 188–228. ISBN 963-05-2661-1.
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Further reading
- Bain, Robert Nisbet (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). p. 49.
- Michaud, Claude (2000). "The kingdoms of Central Europe in the fourteenth century". In Jones, Michael (ed.). The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume VI: c. 1300-c. 1415. Cambridge University Press. pp. 735–763. ISBN 0-521-36290-3.
- Guerri dall'Oro, Guido (2008). "Les mercenaires dans les campagnes Napolitaines de Louis le Grand, Roi de Hongrie, 1347–1350 [The mercenaries of Louis the Great, King of Hungary, during the Neapolitan campaigns, 1347–1350]". In France, John (ed.). Mercenaries and Paid Men: The Mercenary Identity in the Middle Ages: Proceedings of a Conference Held at University of Wales, Swansea, 7th–9th July. BRILL. pp. 61–88. ISBN 978-90-04-16447-5.