Louvre
Established | 10 August 1793 |
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Location | Musée du Louvre, 75001, Paris, France |
Type | Art museum and historic site |
Collection size | 615,797 in 2019[1] (35,000 on display)[2] |
Visitors | 8.9 million (2023)[3]
|
Director | Laurence des Cars |
Curator | Marie-Laure de Rochebrune |
Public transit access |
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Website | louvre.fr |
The Louvre (English:
The building was extended many times to form the present Louvre Palace. In 1682,
The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of 537 paintings, the majority of the works being royal and confiscated church property. Because of structural problems with the building, the museum was closed from 1796 until 1801. The collection was increased under
The Musée du Louvre contains approximately 500,000 objects[8] and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial departments with more than 60,600 m2 (652,000 sq ft) dedicated to the permanent collection.[2] The Louvre exhibits sculptures, objets d'art, paintings, drawings, and archaeological finds. At any given point in time, approximately 38,000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are being exhibited over an area of 72,735 m2 (782,910 sq ft), making it the largest museum in the world. It received 8.9 million visitors in 2023, 14 percent more than in 2022, but still below the 10.1 million visitors in 2018, making it the most-visited museum in the world.[9]
Location and visiting
The Louvre museum is located inside the
Before the Grand Louvre overhaul of the late 1980s and 1990s, the Louvre had several street-level entrances, most of which are now permanently closed. Since 1993, the museum's main entrance has been the underground space under the Louvre Pyramid, or Hall Napoléon, which can be accessed from the Pyramid itself, from the underground Carrousel du Louvre, or (for authorized visitors) from the passage Richelieu connecting to the nearby rue de Rivoli. A secondary entrance at the Porte des Lions, near the western end of the Denon Wing, was created in 1999 but is not permanently open.[11]
The museum's entrance conditions have varied over time. Prior to the 1850s, artists and foreign visitors had privileged access. At the time of initial opening in 1793, the French Republican calendar had imposed ten-day "weeks" (French: décades), the first six days of which were reserved for visits by artists and foreigners and the last three for visits by the general public.[12]: 37 In the early 1800s, after the seven-day week had been reinstated, the general public had only four hours of museum access per weeks, between 2pm and 4pm on Saturdays and Sundays.[13]: 8 In 1824, a new regulation allowed public access only on Sundays and holidays; the other days the museum was open only to artists and foreigners, except for closure on Mondays.[12]: 39 That changed in 1855 when the museum became open to the public all days except Mondays.[12]: 40 It was free until 1922, when an entrance fee was introduced except on Sundays.[12]: 42 Since its post-World War II reopening in 1946,[12]: 43 the Louvre has been closed on Tuesdays, and habitually open to the public the rest of the week except for some holidays.
The use of cameras and video recorders is permitted inside, but flash photography is forbidden.[14]
Beginning in 2012, Nintendo 3DS portable video game systems were used as the official museum audio guides. The following year, the museum contracted Nintendo to create a 3DS-based audiovisual visitor guide.[15] Entitled Nintendo 3DS Guide: Louvre, it contains over 30 hours of audio and over 1,000 photographs of artwork and the museum itself, including 3D views,[16] and also provides navigation thanks to differential GPS transmitters installed within the museum.[17]
The upgraded 2013 Louvre guide was also announced in a special Nintendo Direct featuring Satoru Iwata and Shigeru Miyamoto demonstrating it at the museum,[18] and 3DS XLs pre-loaded with the guide are available to rent at the museum.[19] As of August 2023, there are virtual tours through rooms and galleries accessible online.
History
Before the museum
The
The origins of the name "Louvre" are somewhat disputed. According to the authoritative Grand Larousse encyclopédique, the name derives from an association with a wolf hunting den (via Latin: lupus, lower Empire: lupara).[21][22] In the 7th century, Burgundofara (also known as Saint Fare), abbess in Meaux, is said to have gifted part of her "Villa called Luvra situated in the region of Paris" to a monastery,[23] even though it is doubtful that this land corresponded exactly to the present site of the Louvre.
The Louvre Palace has been subject to numerous renovations since its construction. In the 14th century, Charles V converted the building from its military role into a residence. In 1546, Francis I started its rebuilding in French Renaissance style.[24] After Louis XIV chose Versailles as his residence in 1682, construction works slowed to a halt. The royal move away from Paris resulted in the Louvre being used as a residence for artists, under Royal patronage.[24][20]: 42 [25] For example, four generations of craftsmen-artists from the Boulle family were granted Royal patronage and resided in the Louvre.[26][27][28]
Meanwhile, the collections of the Louvre originated in the acquisitions of paintings and other artworks by the monarchs of the
The Cabinet du Roi consisted of seven rooms west of the Galerie d'Apollon on the upper floor of the remodeled Petite Galerie. Many of the king's paintings were placed in these rooms in 1673, when it became an art gallery, accessible to certain art lovers as a kind of museum. In 1681, after the court moved to Versailles, 26 of the paintings were transferred there, somewhat diminishing the collection, but it is mentioned in Paris guide books from 1684 on, and was shown to ambassadors from
By the mid-18th century there were an increasing number of proposals to create a public gallery in the Louvre. Art critic
Revolutionary opening
The Louvre finally became a public museum during the French Revolution. In May 1791, the
The museum opened on 10 August 1793, the first anniversary of the monarchy's demise, as Muséum central des Arts de la République. The public was given free accessibility on three days per week, which was "perceived as a major accomplishment and was generally appreciated".
The early days were hectic. Privileged artists continued to live in residence, and the unlabeled paintings hung "frame to frame from floor to ceiling".[36] The structure itself closed in May 1796 due to structural deficiencies. It reopened on 14 July 1801, arranged chronologically and with new lighting and columns.[36] On 15 August 1797, the Galerie d'Apollon was opened with an exhibition of drawings. Meanwhile, the Louvre's Gallery of Antiquity sculpture (musée des Antiques), with artefacts brought from Florence and the Vatican, had opened in November 1800 in Anne of Austria's former summer apartment, located on the ground floor just below the Galerie d'Apollon.
Napoleonic era
On 19 November 1802, Napoleon appointed
The collection grew through successful military campaigns.
After the French defeat at Waterloo, the looted works' former owners sought their return. The Louvre's administrator, Denon, was loath to comply in absence of a treaty of restitution. In response, foreign states sent emissaries to London to seek help, and many pieces were returned, though far from all.[40][20]: 69 [44] In 1815 Louis XVIII finally concluded agreements with the Austrian government[45][46] for the keeping of works such as Veronese's Wedding at Cana which was exchanged for a large Le Brun or the repurchase of the Albani collection.
From 1815 to 1852
For most of the 19th century, from Napoleon's time to the Second Empire, the Louvre and other national museums were managed under the monarch's civil list and thus depended much on the ruler's personal involvement. Whereas the most iconic collection remained that of paintings in the Grande Galerie, a number of other initiatives mushroomed in the vast building, named as if they were separate museums even though they were generally managed under the same administrative umbrella. Correspondingly, the museum complex was often referred to in the plural ("les musées du Louvre") rather than singular.[citation needed]
During the
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First room
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Room 27
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Room 29
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Salle des Colonnes
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Room 35
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Room 36
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Room 38
Following the July Revolution, King Louis Philippe focused his interest on the repurposing of the Palace of Versailles into a Museum of French History conceived as a project of national reconciliation, and the Louvre was kept in comparative neglect. Louis-Philippe did, however, sponsor the creation of the musée assyrien to host the monumental Assyrian sculpture works brought to Paris by Paul-Émile Botta, in the ground-floor gallery north of the eastern entrance of the Cour Carrée. The Assyrian Museum opened on 1 May 1847.[49] Separately, Louis-Philippe had his Spanish gallery displayed in the Louvre from 7 January 1838, in five rooms on the first floor of the Cour Carrée's East (Colonnade) Wing,[50] but the collection remained his personal property. As a consequence, the works were removed after Louis-Philippe was deposed in 1848, and were eventually auctioned away in 1853.
The short-lived Second Republic had more ambitions for the Louvre. It initiated repair work, the completion of the Galerie d'Apollon and of the salle des sept-cheminées, and the overhaul of the Salon Carré (former site of the iconic yearly Salon) and of the Grande Galerie.[20]: 52 In 1848, the Naval Museum in the Cour Carrée's attic was brought under the common Louvre Museum management,[48] a change which was again reversed in 1920. In 1850 under the leadership of curator Adrien de Longpérier, the musée mexicain opened within the Louvre as the first European museum dedicated to pre-Columbian art.[citation needed]
Second Empire
The rule of
The main change of that period was to the building itself. In the 1850s architects
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Entrance to a section of the Musée Napoléon III from the salle des séances, then a double-height space
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Galerie Daru, part of the New Louvre building program under Napoleon III
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Salle Daru above the galerie Daru, also created under Napoleon III
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Escalier Mollien in the New Louvre
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Salle des Empereurs
From 1870 to 1981
The Louvre narrowly escaped serious damage during the suppression of the Paris Commune. On 23 May 1871, as the French Army advanced into Paris, a force of Communards led by Jules Bergeret set fire to the adjoining Tuileries Palace. The fire burned for forty-eight hours, entirely destroying the interior of the Tuileries and spreading to the north west wing of the museum next to it. The emperor's Louvre library (Bibliothèque du Louvre) and some of the adjoining halls, in what is now the Richelieu Wing, were separately destroyed. But the museum was saved by the efforts of Paris firemen and museum employees led by curator Henry Barbet de Jouy.[52]
Following the end of the monarchy, several spaces in the Louvre's South Wing went to the museum. The Salle du Manège was transferred to the museum in 1879, and in 1928 became its main entrance lobby.[53] The large Salle des Etats that had been created by Lefuel between the Grande Galerie and Pavillon Denon was redecorated in 1886 by Edmond Guillaume , Lefuel's successor as architect of the Louvre, and opened as a spacious exhibition room.[54][55] Edomond Guillaume also decorated the first-floor room at the northwest corner of the Cour Carrée, on the ceiling of which he placed in 1890 a monumental painting by Carolus-Duran, The Triumph of Marie de' Medici originally created in 1879 for the Luxembourg Palace.[55]
Meanwhile, during the
From the late 19th century, the Louvre gradually veered away from its mid-century ambition of universality to become a more focused museum of French, Western and Near Eastern art, covering a space ranging from
In the late 1920s, Louvre Director Henri Verne devised a master plan for the rationalization of the museum's exhibitions, which was partly implemented in the following decade. In 1932–1934, Louvre architects Camille Lefèvre and Albert Ferran redesigned the Escalier Daru to its current appearance. The Cour du Sphinx in the South Wing was covered by a glass roof in 1934. Decorative arts exhibits were expanded in the first floor of the North Wing of the Cour Carrée, including some of France's first period room displays. In the late 1930s, The La Caze donation was moved to a remodeled Salle La Caze above the salle des Caryatides, with reduced height to create more rooms on the second floor and a sober interior design by Albert Ferran.[citation needed]
During World War II, the Louvre conducted an elaborate plan of evacuation of its art collection. When Germany occupied the Sudetenland, many important artworks such as the Mona Lisa were temporarily moved to the Château de Chambord. When war was formally declared a year later, most of the museum's paintings were sent there as well. Select sculptures such as Winged Victory of Samothrace and the Venus de Milo were sent to the Château de Valençay.[59] On 27 August 1939, after two days of packing, truck convoys began to leave Paris. By 28 December, the museum was cleared of most works, except those that were too heavy and "unimportant paintings [that] were left in the basement".[60] In early 1945, after the liberation of France, art began returning to the Louvre.[61]
New arrangements after the war revealed the further evolution of taste away from the lavish decorative practices of the late 19th century. In 1947, Edmond Guillaume's ceiling ornaments were removed from the Salle des Etats,[55] where the Mona Lisa was first displayed in 1966.[62] Around 1950, Louvre architect Jean-Jacques Haffner streamlined the interior decoration of the Grande Galerie.[55] In 1953, a new ceiling by Georges Braque was inaugurated in the Salle Henri II, next to the Salle La Caze.[63] In the late 1960s, seats designed by Pierre Paulin were installed in the Grande Galerie.[64] In 1972, the Salon Carré's museography was remade with lighting from a hung tubular case, designed by Louvre architect Marc Saltet with assistance from designers André Monpoix , Joseph-André Motte and Paulin.[65]
In 1961, the Finance Ministry accepted to leave the Pavillon de Flore at the southwestern end of the Louvre building, as Verne had recommended in his 1920s plan. New exhibition spaces of sculptures (ground floor) and paintings (first floor) opened there later in the 1960s, on a design by government architect Olivier Lahalle.[66]
Grand Louvre
In 1981, French President
The open spaces surrounding the pyramid were inaugurated on 15 October 1988, and its underground lobby was opened on 30 March 1989. New galleries of early modern French paintings on the 2nd floor of the Cour Carrée, for which the planning had started before the Grand Louvre, also opened in 1989. Further rooms in the same sequence, designed by Italo Rota, opened on 15 December 1992.[citation needed]
On 18 November 1993, Mitterrand inaugurated the next major phase of the Grand Louvre plan: the renovated North (Richelieu) Wing in the former Finance Ministry site, the museum's largest single expansion in its entire history, designed by Pei, his French associate Michel Macary, and Jean-Michel Wilmotte. Further underground spaces known as the Carrousel du Louvre, centered on the Inverted Pyramid and designed by Pei and Macary, had opened in October 1993. Other refurbished galleries, of Italian sculptures and Egyptian antiquities, opened in 1994. The third and last main phase of the plan unfolded mainly in 1997, with new renovated rooms in the Sully and Denon wings. A new entrance at the porte des Lions opened in 1998, leading on the first floor to new rooms of Spanish paintings.[citation needed]
As of 2002, the Louvre's visitor count had doubled from its pre-Grand-Louvre levels.[67]
21st century
President Jacques Chirac, who had succeeded Mitterrand in 1995, insisted on the return of non-Western art to the Louvre, upon a recommendation from his friend the art collector and dealer Jacques Kerchache . On his initiative, a selection of highlights from the collections of what would become the Musée du Quai Branly – Jacques Chirac was installed on the ground floor of the Pavillon des Sessions and opened in 2000, six years ahead of the Musée du Quai Branly itself.
The main other initiative in the aftermath of the Grand Louvre project was Chirac's decision to create a new department of Islamic Art, by executive order of 1 August 2003, and to move the corresponding collections from their prior underground location in the Richelieu Wing to a more prominent site in the Denon Wing. That new section opened on 22 September 2012, together with collections from the Roman-era Eastern Mediterranean, with financial support from the Al Waleed bin Talal Foundation and on a design by Mario Bellini and Rudy Ricciotti.[68][69][70]
In 2007, German painter Anselm Kiefer was invited to create a work for the North stairs of the Perrault Colonnade, Athanor. This decision announces the museum's reengagement with contemporary art under the direction of Henri Loyrette, fifty years after the institution's last order to a contemporary artists, George Braque.[71]
In 2010, American painter Cy Twombly completed a new ceiling for the Salle des Bronzes (the former Salle La Caze), a counterpoint to that of Braque installed in 1953 in the adjacent Salle Henri II. The room's floor and walls were redesigned in 2021 by Louvre architect Michel Goutal to revert the changes made by his predecessor Albert Ferran in the late 1930s, triggering protests from the Cy Twombly Foundation on grounds that the then-deceased painter's work had been created to fit with the room's prior decoration.[72]
That same year, the Louvre commissioned French artist François Morellet to create a work for the Lefuel stairs, on the first floor. For L'esprit d'escalier Morellet redesigned the stairscase's windows, echoing their original structures but distorting them to create a disturbing optical effect.[73]
On 6 June 2014, the Decorative Arts section on the first floor of the Cour Carrée's northern wing opened after comprehensive refurbishment.[74]
In January 2020, under the direction of Jean-Luc Martinez, the museum inaugurated a new contemporary art commission, L'Onde du Midi by Venezuelan kinetic artist Elias Crespin. The sculpture hovers under the Escalier du Midi, the staircase on the South of the Perrault Colonnade.[75]
The Louvre, like many other museums and galleries, felt the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the arts and cultural heritage. It was closed for six months during French coronavirus lockdowns and saw visitor numbers plunge to 2.7 million in 2020, from 9.6 million in 2019 and 10.2 million in 2018, which was a record year.[76][77]
Attendance rose to 8.9 million in 2023, 14 percent above 2022, but still short of the record of 10.2 million in 2018.[9]
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The Pavillon des Sessions's display of non-Western art from the Musée du Quai Branly, opened in 2000
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The Cour Visconti's ground floor covered to host the new Islamic Art Department in 2012
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Islamic art display in the covered Cour Visconti, 2012
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Underground display of the Islamic Art Department, 2012
Collections
The Musée du Louvre owns 615,797 objects[1] of which 482,943 are accessible online since 24 March 2021[78] and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial departments.[2]
Egyptian antiquities
The Louvre is home to one of the world's most extensive collections of art, including works from diverse cultures and time periods. Visitors can view iconic works like the Mona Lisa and the Winged Victory of Samothrace, as well as pieces from ancient civilizations such as Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The museum also features collections of decorative arts, Islamic art, and sculptures.[79]
The department, comprising over 50,000 pieces,
The department's origins lie in the royal collection, but it was augmented by Napoleon's 1798 expeditionary trip with
Guarded by the Great Sphinx of Tanis, the collection is housed in more than 20 rooms. Holdings include art, papyrus scrolls, mummies, tools, clothing, jewelry, games, musical instruments, and weapons.[20]: 76-77 [80] Pieces from the ancient period include the Gebel el-Arak Knife from 3400 BC, The Seated Scribe, and the Head of King Djedefre. Middle Kingdom art, "known for its gold work and statues", moved from realism to idealization; this is exemplified by the schist statue of Amenemhatankh and the wooden Offering Bearer. The New Kingdom and Coptic Egyptian sections are deep, but the statue of the goddess Nephthys and the limestone depiction of the goddess Hathor demonstrate New Kingdom sentiment and wealth.[80][81]
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The Gebel el-Arak Knife; 3300-3200 BC; handle: elephant ivory, blade: flint; length: 25.8 cm
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The Seated Scribe; 2613–2494 BC; painted limestone and inlaid quartz; height: 53.7 cm
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The Great Sphinx of Tanis; circa 2600 BC; rose granite; height: 183 cm, width: 154 cm, thickness: 480 cm
Near Eastern antiquities
Near Eastern antiquities, the second newest department, dates from 1881 and presents an overview of early Near Eastern civilization and "first settlements", before the arrival of
The museum contains exhibits from
A significant portion of the department covers the ancient Levant, including the Sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II discovered in 1855, which catalyzed Ernest Renan's 1860 Mission de Phénicie. It contains one of the world's largest and most comprehensive collections of Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions. The section also covers North African Punic antiquities (Punic = Western Phoenician), given the significant French presence in the region in the 19th century, with early finds including the 1843 discovery of the Ain Nechma inscriptions.
The Persian portion of Louvre contains work from the archaic period, like the Funerary Head and the Persian Archers of Darius I,[80][83] and rare objects from Persepolis.[84]
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Sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II, one of only three Ancient Egyptian sarcophagi found outside Egypt, and the first Phoenician inscription discovered in Phoenicia
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Phoenician metal bowls from Cyprus
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The Code of Hammurabi; 1755–1750 BC; basalt; height: 225 cm, width: 79 cm, thickness: 47 cm
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Frieze of archers, from thePalace of Darius at Susa; circa 510 BC; bricks
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Statues from the Sidon Mithraeum
Greek, Etruscan, and Roman
The Greek, Etruscan, and Roman department displays pieces from the Mediterranean Basin dating from the Neolithic to the 6th century.[85] The collection spans from the Cycladic period to the decline of the Roman Empire. This department is one of the museum's oldest, and contains works acquired by Francis I.[80][20]: 155-58 Initially, the collection focused on marble sculptures, such as the Venus de Milo. Works such as the Apollo Belvedere arrived during the Napoleonic Wars, of which some were returned after Napoleon I's fall in 1815. Other works, such as the Borghese Vase, were bought by Napoleon. Later in the 19th century, the Louvre acquired works including vases from the Durand collection and bronzes.[20]: 92 [85]
The
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Cycladic head of a woman; 27th century BC; marble; height: 27 cm
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The Winged Victory of Samothrace; 200–190 BC; Parian marble; 244 cm
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Venus de Milo; 130–100 BC; marble; height: 203 cm
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Thessalonica, 150-230 AD[87]
Islamic art
The Islamic art collection, the museum's newest, spans "thirteen centuries and three continents".
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The Pyxis of al-Mughira; 10th century (maybe 968); ivory; 15 x 8 cm
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Iranian tile with bismillah; turn of the 13th-14th century; molded ceramic, luster glaze and glaze
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The Baptistère de Saint Louis; by Muhammad ibn al-Zayn; 1320–1340; hammering, engraving, inlay in brass, gold, and silver; 50.2 x 22.2 cm
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Door; 15th-16th century; sculpted, painted and gilded walnut wood
Sculptures
The sculpture department consists of works created before 1850 not belonging in the Etruscan, Greek, and Roman department.[91] The Louvre has been a repository of sculpted material since its time as a palace; however, only ancient architecture was displayed until 1824, except for Michelangelo's Dying Slave and Rebellious Slave.[20]: 397-401 Initially the collection included only 100 pieces, the rest of the royal sculpture collection being at Versailles. It remained small until 1847, when Léon Laborde was given control of the department. Laborde developed the medieval section and purchased the first such statues and sculptures in the collection, King Childebert and stanga door, respectively.[20]: 397-401 The collection was part of the Department of Antiquities but was given autonomy in 1871 under Louis Courajod, a director who organized a wider representation of French works.[91][20]: 397-401 In 1986, all post-1850 works were relocated to the new Musée d'Orsay. The Grand Louvre project separated the department into two exhibition spaces; the French collection is displayed in the Richelieu Wing, and foreign works in the Denon Wing.[91]
The collection's overview of French sculpture contains Romanesque works such as the 11th-century Daniel in the Lions' Den and the 12th-century Virgin of Auvergne. In the 16th century, Renaissance influence caused French sculpture to become more restrained, as seen in Jean Goujon's bas-reliefs, and Germain Pilon's Descent from the Cross and Resurrection of Christ. The 17th and 18th centuries are represented by Gian Lorenzo Bernini's 1640–1 Bust of Cardinal Richelieu, Étienne Maurice Falconet's Woman Bathing and Amour menaçant, and François Anguier's obelisks. Neoclassical works includes Antonio Canova's Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss (1787).[20]: 397-401 The 18th and 19th centuries are represented by the French sculptors like Alfred Barye and Émile Guillemin.
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The Tomb of Philippe Pot; 1477 and 1483; limestone, paint, gold and lead; height: 181 cm, width: 260 cm, depth: 167 cm
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The King's Fame Riding Pegasus; by Antoine Coysevox; 1701–1702; Carrara marble; height: 3.15 m, width: 2.91 m, depth: 1.28 m
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Group sculpture; by Nicolas Coustou; 1701–1712; marble; height: 2.44 m
Decorative arts
The
The works are displayed on the Richelieu Wing's first floor and in the Apollo Gallery, named by the painter Charles Le Brun, who was commissioned by Louis XIV (the Sun King) to decorate the space in a solar theme. The medieval collection contains the coronation crown of Louis XIV,
In September 2000, the Louvre Museum dedicated the
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Henry II style wardrobe; c. 1580; walnut and oak, partially gilded and painted; height: 2.06 m, width: 1.50 m, depth: 0.60 m[95]
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André Charles Boulle; c. 1690–1710; oak frame, resinous wood and walnut, ebony veneer, tortoiseshell, brass and pewter marquetry, and ormolu
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Louis XVI style commode of Madame du Barry; 1772; oak frame, veneer of pearwood, rosewood and kingwood, soft-paste Sèvres porcelain, gilded bronze, white marble, and glass; height: 0.87 m, width: 1.19 m, depth: 0.48 m[96]
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Louis XVI style barometer-thermometer; c. 1776; soft-paste Sèvres porcelain, enamel, and ormolu; height: 1 m, width: 0.27 m[97]
Painting
The painting collection has more than 7,500 works
Exemplifying the French School are the early Avignon Pietà of Enguerrand Quarton; the anonymous painting of King Jean le Bon (c. 1360), possibly the oldest independent portrait in Western painting to survive from the postclassical era;[20]: 201 Hyacinthe Rigaud's Louis XIV; Jacques-Louis David's The Coronation of Napoleon; Théodore Géricault's The Raft of the Medusa; and Eugène Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People. Nicolas Poussin, the Le Nain brothers, Philippe de Champaigne, Le Brun, La Tour, Watteau, Fragonard, Ingres, Corot, and Delacroix are well represented.[102]
Northern European works include
The Italian holdings are notable, particularly the Renaissance collection.
The La Caze Collection, a bequest to the Musée du Louvre in 1869 by Louis La Caze, was the largest contribution of a person in the history of the Louvre. La Caze gave 584 paintings of his personal collection to the museum. The bequest included Antoine Watteau's Commedia dell'arte player of Pierrot ("Gilles"). In 2007, this bequest was the topic of the exhibition "1869: Watteau, Chardin... entrent au Louvre. La collection La Caze".[106]
Some of the best known paintings of the museum have been digitized by the French Center for Research and Restoration of the Museums of France.[107]
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Quentin Massys; 1514; oil on panel; 70.5 × 67 cm
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Spring; by Giuseppe Arcimboldo; 1573; oil on canvas; 76 × 64 cm
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Susanna and the Elders; by Giambattista Pittoni; 1720; oil on panel; 37 × 46 cm
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The Continence of Scipio; by Giambattista Pittoni; 1733; oil on panel; 96 × 56 cm
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Diana after the Bath; by François Boucher; 1742; oil on canvas; 73 × 56 cm
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Oath of the Horatii; by Jacques-Louis David; 1784; oil on canvas; height: 330 cm, width: 425 cm
Prints and drawings
The prints and drawings department encompasses works on paper.[20]: 496 The origins of the collection were the 8,600 works in the Royal Collection (Cabinet du Roi), which were increased via state appropriation, purchases such as the 1,200 works from Fillipo Baldinucci's collection in 1806, and donations.[20]: 92 [108] The department opened on 5 August 1797, with 415 pieces displayed in the Galerie d'Apollon. The collection is organized into three sections: the core Cabinet du Roi, 14,000 royal copper printing-plates, and the donations of Edmond de Rothschild,[109] which include 40,000 prints, 3,000 drawings, and 5,000 illustrated books. The holdings are displayed in the Pavillon de Flore; due to the fragility of the paper medium, only a portion are displayed at one time.[20]: 496
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Three lion-like heads; by Charles Le Brun; c. 1671; black chalk, pen and ink, brush and gray wash, white gouache on paper; 21.7 × 32.7 cm
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Bacchus; by Antoine Coypel; black chalk, white highlights, and sanguine; 42.7 × 37.7 cm
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Studies of Women's Heads and a Man's Head; by Antoine Watteau; first half of the 18th century; sanguine, black chalk and white chalk on gray paper; 28 × 38.1 cm
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Danseuse sur la scène; by Edgar Degas; pastel; 58 × 42 cm
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Portrait of elderly woman, by Matthias Grünewald
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Portrait of a young woman, by Hans Holbein
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Head of a man, by Andrea del Sarto
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Virgin and Child, by Biagio Pupini
Management, administration, partnerships
The Louvre is owned by the French government. Since the 1990s, its management and governance have been made more independent.[110][111][112][113] Since 2003, the museum has been required to generate funds for projects.[112] By 2006, government funds had dipped from 75 percent of the total budget to 62 percent. Every year, the Louvre now raises as much as it gets from the state, about €122 million. The government pays for operating costs (salaries, safety, and maintenance), while the rest – new wings, refurbishments, acquisitions – is up to the museum to finance.[114] A further €3 million to €5 million a year is raised by the Louvre from exhibitions that it curates for other museums, while the host museum keeps the ticket money.[114] As the Louvre became a point of interest in the book The Da Vinci Code and the 2006 film based on the book, the museum earned $2.5 million by allowing filming in its galleries.[115][116] In 2008, the French government provided $180 million of the Louvre's yearly $350 million budget; the remainder came from private contributions and ticket sales.[111]
The Louvre employs a staff of 2,000 led by Director Jean-Luc Martinez,[117] who reports to the French Ministry of Culture and Communications. Martinez replaced Henri Loyrette in April 2013. Under Loyrette, who replaced Pierre Rosenberg in 2001, the Louvre has undergone policy changes that allow it to lend and borrow more works than before.[110][112] In 2006, it loaned 1,300 works, which enabled it to borrow more foreign works. From 2006 to 2009, the Louvre lent artwork to the High Museum of Art in Atlanta, Georgia, and received a $6.9 million payment to be used for renovations.[112]
In 2009,
In 2012, the Louvre and the
In March 2018, an exhibition of dozens of artworks and relics belonging to France's Louvre Museum was opened to visitors in Tehran, as a result of an agreement between Iranian and French presidents in 2016.[123] In the Louvre, two departments were allocated to the antiquities of the Iranian civilization, and the managers of the two departments visited Tehran. Relics belonging to Ancient Egypt, Rome and Mesopotamia as well as French royal items were showcased at the Tehran exhibition.[124][125][126]
Iran's National Museum building was designed and constructed by French architect André Godard.[127] Following its time in Tehran, the exhibition is set to be held in the Khorasan Grand Museum in Mashhad, northeastern Iran in June 2018.[128]
On the 500th anniversary of Leonardo da Vinci's death, the Louvre held the largest ever single exhibit of his work, from 24 October 2019 to 24 February 2020.[129][130] The event included over a hundred items: paintings, drawings and notebooks. A full 11 of the fewer than 20 paintings that Da Vinci completed in his lifetime were displayed.[131] Five of them are owned by the Louvre, but the Mona Lisa was not included because it is in such great demand among visitors to the Louvre museum; the work remained on display in its gallery. Salvator Mundi was also not included since the Saudi owner did not agree to move the work from its hiding place. Vitruvian Man, however, was on display, after a successful legal battle with its owner, the Galleria dell'Accademia in Venice.[132][133]
In 2021, a Renaissance era ceremonial helmet and breastplate stolen from the museum in 1983 were recovered. The museum noted that the 1983 theft had "deeply troubled all the staff at the time." There are few publicly accessible details on the theft itself.[134][135]
The current director of the Louvre is Laurence des Cars, who was selected by French president Emmanuel Macron in 2021.[136][137] She is the first woman to hold this position.[138] During the COVID-19 pandemic, the Louvre has launched a digital platform where most of its works, including those that are not on display, can be seen. The database includes more than 482,000 illustrated records, representing 75% of the Louvre's collections.[139] The museum was visited by over 7.6 million visitors in 2022, up 170 percent from 2021, but still below the 10.8 million visitors in 2018 before the COVID-19 pandemic.[140]
In 2023, the Louvre Museum in Paris implemented a significant change in its pricing policy, marking the first price increase since 2017.[141] The decision to raise ticket prices by 30% is part of a broader strategy aimed at supporting free entry during the Olympics and effectively managing the anticipated crowd. Director Laurence des Cars has introduced measures to regulate attendance, including capping daily visitors at 30,000 and planning a new entrance to alleviate congestion. These efforts are geared towards ensuring a top-notch experience for art enthusiasts during the Olympic Games, as the museum expects to host approximately 8.7 million visitors this year, with a remarkable 80% seeking to view the renowned Mona Lisa.
Archaeological research
The Louvre's ancient art collections are to a significant extent the product of excavations, some of which the museum sponsored under various legal regimes over time, often as a companion to France's diplomacy and/or colonial enterprises. In the Rotonde d'Apollon, a carved marble panel lists a number of such campaigns, led by:
- Louis-François-Sébastien Fauvel in Greece (1818)
- Jean-François Champollion in Egypt (1828–1829)
- Guillaume-Abel Blouet and Léon-Jean-Joseph Dubois with the Morea expedition in Greece (1829)
- Adolphe Delamare in Algeria (1842–1845)
- Paul-Émile Botta in the Nineveh Plains (1845)
- Joseph Vattier de Bourville in Cyrenaica (1850)
- Auguste Mariette in Egypt (1850–1854)
- Victor Langlois in Cilicia(1852)
- Ernest Renan with the Mission de Phénicie following the 1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus (1860–1861)
- Léon Heuzey and Honoré Daumet in Macedonia (1861)
- Eugène-Melchior de Vogüé and Edmond Duthoit in Cyprus (1863–1866)
- Charles Champoiseau in Samothrace(1863)
- Emmanuel Miller in Thessaloniki and Thasos (1864–1865)
- Olivier Rayet and Albert-Félix-Théophile Thomas in Ionia (1872–1873)
- Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau in Palestine (1873)
- Antoine Héron de Villefosse in Algeria and Tunisia (1874)
- Ernest de Sarzec in Tello / ancient Girsu, Mesopotamia (1877–1900)
- Paul Girard in Greece (1881)
- Edmond Pottier, Salomon Reinach and Alphonse Veyries in Myrina (Aeolis) (1872–1873)
- Marcel-Auguste Dieulafoy and Jane Dieulafoy in Susa, Persia (1884–1886)
- Charles Huber in Tayma, Arabia (1885)
- Alfred Charles Auguste Foucher in India and present-day Pakistan (1895–1897)
- Arthur Engel and Pierre Paris in Spain (1897)
- Jacques de Morgan in Susa (1897)
- Gaston Cros in Tello / ancient Girsu (1902)
- Paul Pelliot in Chinese Turkestan (1907–1909)
- Maurice Pézard in Northern Palestine (1923)
- Georges Aaron Bénédite in Egypt (1926)
- François Thureau-Dangin in Northern Syria (1929)
- Henri de Genouillac in Mesopotamia (1912, 1929)
- the Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale in Cairo, created in 1880
The rest of the plaque combines donors of archaeological items, many of whom were archaeologists themselves, and other archaeologists whose excavations contributed to the Louvre's collections:
- Frédéric Moreau in France (1899)
- Édouard Piette in France (1902)
- Joseph de Baye in France (1899–1906)
- Henri and Jacques de Morgan in Susa (1909–1910)
- Léon Henri-Martin (1906–1920) and his daughter Germaine in France (1976)
- Louis Capitan in France (1929)
- René de Saint-Périer] and his wife Suzanne in France (1935)
- Fernand Bisson de la Roquein Egypt (1922–1950)
- Bernard Bruyère in Egypt (1920–1951)
- Raymond Weill in Egypt (1952)
- Pierre Montet in Egypt (1921–1956)
- Indus Valleyand Afghanistan (1950–1973)
- Suzanne de Saint-Mathurin in France (1973)
- André Parrot in Mari, Syria (1931–1974)
- Claude Frédéric-Armand Schaeffer in Ugarit, Syria (1929–1970)
- Roman Ghirshman in Iraq and Iran (1931–1972)
Satellites and offshoots
Several museums in and outside France have been or are placed under the Louvre's administrative authority or linked to it through exclusive partnerships, while not being located in the Louvre Palace. Since 2019, the Louvre has also maintained a large art storage and research facility in the Northern French town of Liévin, the Centre de conservation du Louvre , which is not open to the public.[142]
Musée de Cluny (1926–1977)
In February 1926, the Musée de Cluny, whose creation dates back to the 19th century, was brought under the aegis of the Louvre's department of decorative arts (Objets d'Art).[143] That affiliation was terminated in 1977.[144]
Musée du Jeu de Paume (1947–1986)
The Jeu de Paume building in the Tuileries Garden, initially intended as a sports venue, was repurposed from 1909 as an art gallery. In 1947, it became the exhibition space for the Louvre's collections of late 19th and early 20th paintings, most prominently Impressionism, as the Louvre Palace was lacking space to display them, and was consequently brought under direct management by the Louvre's Département des Peintures. In 1986, these collections were transferred to the newly created Musée d'Orsay.[145]
Gypsothèque du Louvre (since 2001)
The
Musée Delacroix (since 2004)
The small museum located in Eugène Delacroix's former workshop in central Paris, created in the 1930s, has been placed under management by the Louvre since 2004.[148]
Louvre-Lens (since 2012)
The Louvre-Lens follows a May 2003 initiative by then culture minister Jean-Jacques Aillagon to promote cultural projects outside of Paris that would make the riches of major Parisian institutions available to a broader French public, including a satellite (antenne) of the Louvre.[149] After several rounds of competition, a former mining site in the town of Lens was selected for its location and announced by Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin on 2004-11-29. Japanese architects SANAA and landscape architect Catherine Mosbach were respectively selected in September 2005 to design the museum building and garden. Inaugurated by President François Hollande on 2012-12-04, the Louvre-Lens is run by the Hauts-de-France region under a contract (convention scientifique et culturelle) with the Louvre for art loans and brand use. Its main attraction is an exhibition of roughly 200 artworks from the Louvre on a rotating basis, presented chronologically in a single large room (the Galerie du Temps or "gallery of time") that transcends the geographical and object-type divisions along which the Parisian Louvre's displays are organized. The Louvre-Lens has been successful at attracting around 500,000 visitors per year until the COVID-19 pandemic.[150]
Louvre Abu Dhabi (since 2017)
The
Controversy
The Louvre is involved in controversies that surround cultural property seized under Napoleon I, as well as during World War II by the Nazis. In the early 2010s, workers' rights in the construction of Louvre Abu Dhabi were also a point of controversy for the museum.
Napoleonic looting
Napoleon's campaigns acquired Italian pieces by treaties, as war reparations, and Northern European pieces as spoils as well as some antiquities excavated in Egypt, though the vast majority of the latter were seized as war reparations by the British army and are now part of collections of the British Museum. On the other hand, the Dendera zodiac is, like the Rosetta Stone, claimed by Egypt even though it was acquired in 1821, before the Egyptian Anti-export legislation of 1835. The Louvre administration has thus argued in favor of retaining this item despite requests by Egypt for its return. The museum participates too in arbitration sessions held via UNESCO's Committee for Promoting the Return of Cultural Property to Its Countries of Origin.[155] The museum consequently returned in 2009 five Egyptian fragments of frescoes (30 cm x 15 cm each) whose existence of the tomb of origin had only been brought to the authorities attention in 2008, eight to five years after their good-faith acquisition by the museum from two private collections and after the necessary respect of the procedure of déclassement from French public collections before the Commission scientifique nationale des collections des musées de France.[156]
Nazi looting
They were exhibited in 1946 and shown all together to the public during four years (1950–1954) in order to allow rightful claimants to identify their properties, then stored or displayed, according to their interest, in several French museums including the Louvre. From 1951 to 1965, about 37 pieces were restituted. Since November 1996, the partly illustrated catalogue of 1947–1949 has been accessible online and completed. In 1997, Prime Minister Alain Juppé initiated the Mattéoli Commission, headed by Jean Mattéoli, to investigate the matter and according to the government, the Louvre is in charge of 678 pieces of artwork still unclaimed by their rightful owners.[161] During the late 1990s, the comparison of the American war archives, which had not been done before, with the French and German ones as well as two court cases which finally settled some of the heirs' rights (Gentili di Giuseppe and Rosenberg families) allowed more accurate investigations. Since 1996, the restitutions, according sometimes to less formal criteria, concerned 47 more pieces (26 paintings, with 6 from the Louvre including a then displayed Tiepolo), until the last claims of French owners and their heirs ended again in 2006.[citation needed]
According to Serge Klarsfeld, since the now complete and constant publicity which the artworks got in 1996, the majority of the French Jewish community is nevertheless in favour of the return to the normal French civil rule of prescription acquisitive of any unclaimed good after another long period of time and consequently to their ultimate integration into the common French heritage instead of their transfer to foreign institutions like during World War II.[citation needed]
Construction of Louvre Abu Dhabi
In 2011, over 130 international artists urged a boycott of the new Guggenheim museum as well as Louvre Abu Dhabi, citing reports, since 2009, of abuses of foreign construction workers on Saadiyat Island, including the arbitrary withholding of wages, unsafe working conditions, and failure of companies to pay or reimburse the steep recruitment fees being charged to laborers.[162][163] According to Architectural Record, Abu Dhabi has comprehensive labor laws to protect the workers, but they are not conscientiously implemented or enforced.[164] In 2010, the Guggenheim Foundation placed on its website a joint statement with Abu Dhabi's Tourism Development and Investment Company (TDIC) recognizing the following workers' rights issues, among others: health and safety of the workers; their access to their passports and other documents that the employers have been retaining to guaranty that they stay on the job; using a general contractor that agrees to obey the labor laws; maintaining an independent site monitor; and ending the system that has been generally used in the Persian Gulf region of requiring workers to reimburse recruitment fees.[165]
In 2013,
See also
- Center for Research and Restoration of Museums of France
- List of museums in Paris
- Musée de la mode et du textile
- List of tourist attractions in Paris
- List of largest art museums
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- ^ a b c Fixsen, Anna. :What Is Frank Gehry Doing About Labor Conditions in Abu Dhabi?", Architectural Record, 25 September 2014
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- ^ Carrick, Glenn and David Batty. "In Abu Dhabi, they call it Happiness Island. But for the migrant workers, it is a place of misery", The Observer, 22 December 2013, accessed 30 June 2014; Batty, David. "Conditions for Abu Dhabi's migrant workers 'shame the west'", The Observer, 22 December 2013, accessed 1 December 2014; Batty, David. "Campaigners criticise UAE for failing to tackle exploitation of migrant workers", The Observer, 22 December 2013, accessed 30 June 2014
- ^ Rosenbaum, Lee. "Guardian Exposé: Substandard Conditions Reportedly Persist for Some Abu Dhabi Construction Workers (plus Guggenheim's, TDIC's reactions) updated", CultureGrrl, ArtsJournal.com, 24 December 2013
- ^ Rosenbaum, Lee. "'Satellite Museums' Panel: My Interchange with Guggenheim's Richard Armstrong on Abu Dhabi Human-Rights Concerns", CultureGrrl, ArtsJournal.com, 24 April 2014
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