Lower Silesia

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the historical region. For the Polish administrative region, see Lower Silesian Voivodeship. For the former Prussian province, see Province of Lower Silesia.

Lower Silesia
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Primary airports
Highways

Lower Silesia (

Latin: Silesia Inferior) is a historical and geographical region mostly located in Poland with small portions in the Czech Republic and Germany. It is the western part of the region of Silesia
.

In the

town rights
were granted.

In the late Middle Ages the region fell under the overlordship of the Bohemian Crown, but large parts remained under the rule of local Polish dukes of the Piast dynasty, some up to the 16th and 17th century. Briefly under the suzerainty of the Kingdom of Hungary, it fell to the Austrian Habsburg monarchy in 1526.

Lower Silesia (Dolny Śląsk) and other historical regions of Poland against the background of modern administrative borders (names in Polish)
Silesian coat of arms,
as drawn c. 1890 by Hugo Gerard Ströhl

In 1742, Austria ceded nearly all of Lower Silesia to the Kingdom of Prussia in the Treaty of Berlin, except for the southern part of the Duchy of Nysa. Within the Prussian kingdom, the region became part of the Province of Silesia. In 1871, the Prussian-controlled portion of Lower Silesia was integrated into the German Empire. After World War I, Lower Silesia was divided, as small parts were reintegrated with Poland and Czechoslovakia, which both regained independence.

After Germany's defeat in World War II in 1945, most of the region returned to Poland, while a smaller part west of the

Oder-Neisse line became part of East Germany and Czech Lower Silesia (Jesenicko and Opavsko regions) remained as a part of Czechoslovakia. By 1949, almost the entire pre-war German population was expelled in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement.[1]
Poles displaced from the former Polish lands incorporated into the USSR settled in Lower Silesia after the war, as well as Polish settlers from other parts of Poland.

The region is known for an abundance of historic architecture of various styles, including many castles and palaces, well preserved or reconstructed

consorts (in Wrocław, Legnica and Trzebnica
).

Geography

Lower Silesia is located mostly in the basin of the middle Oder River with its historic capital in Wrocław.

The southern border of Lower Silesia is mapped by the mountain ridge of the Western and Central Sudetes, which since the High Middle Ages formed the border between Polish Silesia and the historic Bohemian region of the present-day Czech Republic. The Bóbr and Kwisa rivers are considered being the original western border with the Lusatias, however, the Silesian Duchy of Żagań reached up to the Neisse river, including two villages (Pechern and Neudorf) on the western shore, which became Silesian in 1413.

The later

Silesian Province of Prussia further comprised the adjacent lands of historic Upper Lusatia ceded by the Kingdom of Saxony after the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, its westernmost point could be found as far west as the small village of Lindenau (now belonging to the German state of Brandenburg). To the north, Lower Silesia originally stretched up to Świebodzin and Krosno Odrzańskie, which was acquired by the Margraves of Brandenburg in 1482. The Barycz river forms the border with historic Greater Poland
in the northeast, the Upper Silesian lands lie to the southeast.

Administratively Polish Lower Silesia is shared between

Krosno Odrzańskie, Nowa Sól, Świebodzin, Żagań and Zielona Góra with the city of Zielona Góra, as well as western Opole Voivodeship (the counties of Brzeg, Namysłów and Nysa
).

The tiny part of the former Duchy of Żagań on the western shore of the Neisse is today part of the Krauschwitz municipality in the Görlitz district of Saxony, the larger Upper Lusatian parts of Prussian Silesia ("Silesian Upper Lusatia") west of the Neisse comprised the town of Görlitz and the former district of Hoyerswerda, which today forms the northern part of the Saxon Görlitz and Bautzen districts as well as the southern part of the Oberspreewald-Lausitz district in Brandenburg. The southern part of the former Duchy of Nysa, which fell to Austrian Silesia in 1742, namely the Jeseník District and Heřmanovice, Mnichov and Železná, as well as parts of Vrbno pod Pradědem in the Bruntál District, today belongs to the Czech Republic.

Lower Silesia is bordered by Greater Poland and Lubusz Land in the north, Upper Silesia in the east, Moravia in the south-east, Bohemia and Kłodzko Land in the south, and Lusatia in the west.

Sudetes

Śnieżka

The Sudetes are a geologically diverse mountain range that stretches for 280 kilometres (170 miles) from the Lusatian Highlands in the west and to the Moravian Gate in the east. They are topographically divided into Western, Central and Eastern Sudetes.

The Lower Silesian section of the Sudetes comprises the

Jeseníky (English: Ashes mountains; Praděd
, 1,492 m or 4,895 ft).

Silesian Lowland

The adjacent Silesian Lowland includes the

Równina Wrocławska
with its surrounding lands: Równina Oleśnicka, Wysoczyzna Średzka, Równina Grodkowska and Niemodlińska. Dolina Dolnej Kaczawy (Kotlina Legnicka) separates the Silesian Lowlands from the Silesian-Lusatian Lowlands, which includes Wysoczyzna Lubińsko-Chocianowska, Dolina Szprotawy, and wide areas of Bory Dolnośląskie, located to the north from the Bolesławiec-Zgorzelec road. From the North, the lowlands are delimited by Wał Trzebnicki, consisting of hills that are 200 km (120 mi) long and over 150 m (490 ft) high, in comparison to neighboring lowlands, Kobyla Mountain, 284 m (932 ft). The range of hills includes Wzgórza Dalkowskie, Wzgórza Trzebnickie, Wzgórza Twardogórskie, and Wzgórza Ostrzeszowskie. Obniżenie Milicko-Głogowskie, with Kotlina Żmigrodzka and Milicka, is located in the northern part, within the hills.

The region of the lowlands is coated with a thick layer of glacial elements (

clay) that covers more diverse relief of the older ground. Generally flat and wide bottoms of the valleys are padded with river settlements. Slopes of the hills over 180–200 m (590–660 ft) are coated with fertile clays and therefore, to begin with, the Paleozoic era, they became the lands for people to settle and cultivate intensively. The later form of the economy caused almost complete deforestation of the slopes. Not only fertile grounds, but also the mild climate is conductive to the development of agriculture and market gardening. The annual average temperature of the Wrocław area is 9.5 °C (49.1 °F). The average temperature of the hottest month (July) is 19 °C (66 °F), and −0.5 °C (31.1 °F) of the coldest month (January). The average amount of rainfall is 500–620 millimetres (20–24 inches
), with its maximum in July and minimum in February. The snow layer disappears after 45 days. The winds, similar to those appearing in the West side of Poland, are West and Southwest.

Sudeten rivers are characterized by changeable water rates, and high pollution resulting from large industrialization of the area. The greatest rivers are

Nysa Szalona and Czarna Woda. There is also the largest right-bank tributary of the area, Barycz. The other quite large rivers, Bóbr, Kwisa, and Lusatian Neisse, flow into the Oder River beyond Lower Silesian borders. The majority of the rivers is regulated and their basins are improved, which is conductive to the proper water economy. The characteristic feature of the landscape of the lowland is the lack of lakes. The region of Legnica
is the only place where a dozen or so of small lakes survived, but the majority of them is already disappearing. The largest one is Jezioro Kunickie (95 hectares or 230 acres), Jezioro Koskowickie (50 ha or 120 acres), Jezioro Jaśkowickie (24 ha or 59 acres) and Tatarak (19.5 ha or 48 acres). In contrast to the number of lakes, there are large groups of artificial ponds founded in the Barycz basin, in the Middle Ages. Their total area amounts around 80 square kilometres (31 square miles), and the largest ponds (Stary Staw, Łosiowy Staw, Staw Niezgoda, Staw Mewi Duży, and Grabownica) come to 200–300 ha (490–740 acres).

The primeval flora has been transformed significantly as a result of

sycamore maple, and pine). These forests, with protected status, are: Zwierzyniec, Kanigóra near Oława, Dublany, Kępa Opatowicka near Wrocław, Zabór near Przedmoście, and Lubiąż
. The other forest areas are The Natural Park in Orsk, the areas of Jodłowice, Wzgórze Joanny near Milicz, and Gola near Twardogóra. Such types of forest like those which are the mainstay for wild game or nurseries, are inaccessible because of permanent fire hazard. Territories partly accessible (marked specially) are located in areas of Góra Śląska, Oborniki Śląskie, Wołowa, in the Oder River valley, and in Wzgórza Niemczańsko-Strzelińskie.

Flora

Lower Silesian Forest, the largest continuous forest of Poland

The flora of Lower Silesia is specific and different for each zone. From the bottoms to the top, plants form groups that are arranged in wide or narrow belts, called floral zones. Subsequently, these zones are divided into narrower belts, called vegetation belts.

The zone of mountain forest is divided into two belts:

cloudberry
(Rubus chamaemorus). The flora of Lower Silesia is strongly influenced by geological and climatic history. The vegetation is formed by species deriving from various geographic regions. Particular regions are represented by:

Lower subalpine forest

Lower subalpine forest (

European larch
; and above 800 m, fir and beech.

Despite transformation of the basic tree vegetation, the same form of undergrowth survived. There occurs:

willow gentian
.

In highlighted places, on meadows, and along roads, there occurs:

butterbur
.

Pine forests are rich in spruces, which are permanently weakened by atmospheric factors. Frayed roots are easily infected by harmful

bracket fungus
, which destroys roots and trunks from the inside. The honey mushroom devastates the tree within a few months, and the bracket fungus, within a few years, as a result of mechanic changes in wood structure.

History

See also: History of Silesia

Ancient history

At the close of the

Silesian Lowland. In the Mesolithic (7,000 years ago), the first nomadic people settled in Lower Silesia, living in caves and primitive chalets. They were collectors, hunters, and fishers, and used weapons and other tools made of stone and wood. In the Upper Paleolithic, the oldest human remains of the nomadic people, which were 40,000 years old, were found in a tomb in Tyniec on the river Ślęża
.

In the

Unetice culture that affected the existence of Trzciniec culture
. In the next periods since c. 750 BC, it encompasses all of Europe.

Early history

In the

Asia Minor
, and the Asian steppes from the beginning of the sixth century.

The

Spytihnev I of Bohemia and his successors Vratislaus I, the alleged founder of Wrocław (Czech: Vratislav), and Boleslaus the Cruel
.

Piast Kingdom of Poland

Kingdom of Poland with Lower Silesia under the first king Bolesław I the Brave

Meanwhile, the West Slavic

Mieszko I, who had gained the support of Emperor Otto II against the Bohemian duke Boleslaus II
.

In 1000 his son and successor

Archbishopric of Gniezno in Greater Poland, founded by Emperor Otto III at the Congress of Gniezno in the same year. The ecclesial suzerainty of Gniezno over Wrocław lasted until 1821. After a temporary shift to Bohemia in the first half of the 11th century, Lower Silesia continued to be an integral part of the Polish state until the end of its fragmentation period when all Polish claims on this land were finally renounced in favor of the Bohemian kingdom
in 1348.

Various Polish defensive battles against the invading Germans took place in the region in the Middle Ages, including the victorious battles

Polish Kingdom alongside Kraków and Sandomierz in the oldest Polish chronicle, Gesta principum Polonorum. One of the largest battles of medieval Poland, the Battle of Legnica, during the first Mongol invasion of Poland
was fought in the region 1241.

The oldest known Polish written sentence in the Book of Henryków

Also a leading region of medieval Poland. The first-ever granting of town privileges in Polish history, happened there, when Złotoryja was granted such rights in 1211 by Henry the Bearded, and in the 13th century the Book of Henryków, a chronicle containing the oldest known text in Polish, was created in the region.

Henry I the Bearded
(1201–1238)

The

duchies
. Main duchies of Lower Silesia:

  • Silesia–Wrocław
    • Legnica, split off in 1248
      • Brzeg, split off from Legnica in 1311
      • Świdnica-Jawor, split off from Legnica in 1274
        • Lwówek
          , split off from Świdnica in 1281
        • Ziębice
          , split off from Świdnica in 1321
    • Głogów, split off from Legnica in 1251
    • Nysa, established in 1290

Polish duchies, Bohemian Crown, Hungary, Austria, and Prussia

Renaissance facade of the Brzeg Castle, depicting members of the Piast dynasty, from the semi-legendary founder Piast the Wheelwright to Duke Frederick II of Legnica

With the 1335

exclave separated from the rest of Silesia. Crossen remained an important center of Polish culture.[citation needed] In 1475 Głogów-born Polish printer Kasper Elyan [pl] founded the Drukarnia Świętokrzyska [pl] (Holy Cross Printing House) in Wrocław, which published the Statuta synodalia episcoporum Wratislaviensium [pl], the first incunable in Lower Silesia, which also contains the first-ever text printed in the Polish language.[2]

In 1526 Silesia became part of the

George William of Legnica died at the Brzeg Castle, as the last male member of the Piast dynasty, which founded the Polish state in the 10th century. He was buried in Legnica
.

Two main routes connecting Warsaw and Dresden ran through the region in the 18th century and Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland often traveled that route.[3]

Middle Silesia
")

Most of Lower Silesia, except for the southern part of the Duchy of Nysa, became part of the

Polnisch Nettkow, Drehnow); the exclave of Schwiebus in the north, as well as few other small exclaves in the west, were transferred to Brandenburg Province. The formerly Bohemian County of Kladsko
, which had been annexed along with Silesia in 1742, was attached to the Reichenbach region in 1818, becoming part of the central Breslau region upon Reichenbach's dissolution in 1820.

The

Polish secret resistance movement was active in the region in the 19th century. On 5 May 1848, a convention of Polish activists from the Prussian and Austrian partitions of Poland was held in Wrocław.[4] Wrocław was the seat of a Polish uprising committee before and during the January Uprising of 1863–1864 in the Russian Partition of Poland.[5] Local Poles took part in Polish national mourning after the Russian massacre of Polish protesters in Warsaw in February 1861, and also organized several patriotic Polish church services throughout 1861.[6] Secret Polish correspondence, weapons, gunpowder and insurgents were transported through the region.[7] In June 1863 Wrocław was officially confirmed as the seat of secret Polish insurgent authorities.[8] The Prussian police arrested a number of members of the Polish insurgent movement.[9]

Early 20th-century view of the mausoleum of the last Piast dukes in the Church of St. John the Baptist in Legnica

From 1871, Lower Silesia was part of the German Empire. As a result of long lasting German colonization and Germanisation, by the beginning of the 20th century Lower Silesia had a majority German-speaking population, with the exception of a small Polish-speaking area in the northeastern part of the district of Namslau (Namysłów), Groß Wartenberg (Syców) and Militsch (Milicz) and a Czech-speaking minority in the rural area around Strehlen (Strzelin). There were also Polish communities in large cities such as Breslau (Wrocław) and Grünberg (Zielona Góra). During World War I, the Germans operated at least 24 forced labour camps for Allied prisoners of war in the region.[10]

After the war, the bulk of Lower Silesia remained within Germany, the Bohemian part was included within Czechoslovakia, and a small part with Rychtal was reintegrated with Poland, which just regained independence. The German part was re-organized into the Province of Lower Silesia of the Free State of Prussia consisting of the Breslau and Liegnitz regions. In the interwar period, there were multiple instances of anti-Polish violence in the German part, and already in 1920 a Polish consulate in Wrocław was attacked and demolished by German nationalists.[11] In the 1930s Poles and Jews were increasingly persecuted in the German-controlled part of the region. Many place names were Germanized in order to erase traces of Polish origin, even streets, squares, buildings and enterprises with the name Piast were forced to change their names (including the Piast castles in Brzeg and Wołów).[12]

World War II

Gross-Rosen concentration camp, now a museum

In September 1939, at the start of World War II, Germany invaded and occupied the Polish part of the region. Already in 1939, the Germans carried out the first expulsions of Poles, and some died during their deportation to the more-eastern part of German-occupied Poland.[13]

During the war, the Germans established the

Yugoslavians, Russians, Australians, New Zealanders, South Africans, Norwegians, Lithuanians, Slovaks, etc. There were also several Nazi prisons, other forced labour camps and a camp for kidnapped Polish children up to 5 years of age, who were deemed "racially worthless" in Wąsosz, where many died.[16] The Project Riese
construction project, which cost the lives of many forced laborers of various nationalities, was conducted by Germany in the region.

The Polish resistance movement was active in the region, including the Home Army and Olimp organization.

In the final stages of the war it was the site of several death marches perpetrated by Nazi Germany.

In view of Polish claims to the area, a memorandum prepared by the United States Department of State in May 1945 recommended that the area stay with Germany because there was "no historic or ethnic justification" for granting this land to Poland.[17]

However, according to Soviet insistence at the

Oder-Neisse line
.

Modern Poland

The remaining

Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union
came to the region.

From 1945 to 1975 Lower Silesia was administered within the

Wrocław Voivodeships (1975–1998). As a result of the Local Government Reorganisation Act of 1998, these four provinces were joined into the Lower Silesian Voivodeship
(effective 1 January 1999), whose capital is Wrocław.

Following the Korean War, in 1953–1959, Poland admitted 1,000 North Korean orphans in the region.[19]

Population

At the close of the

Germanic Tribes, who during the Migration Period moved westward to the lands of modern Germany and France and were replaced in Lower Silesia by Lechitic tribes. Centuries later, German settlers came to Lower Silesia during the Late Middle Ages,[20] attracted by newly founded towns to develop the region. Over time, the autochthonous Polish population became partly Germanised and took up the German language as well, however, notable Polish communities survived, especially in northern Lower Silesia, and in larger cities. In year 1819, the Breslau Regency had 833,253 inhabitants, the majority of whom—755,553 (90%)—were German-speakers; with a Polish-speaking minority numbering 66,500 (8%); as well as 3,900 Czechs (1%) and 7,300 Jews (1%).[21] U.S. Immigration Commission in 1911 classified Polish-speaking Silesians as ethnic Poles.[22] After World War II, German inhabitants that had not fled the area due to the war, were expelled in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement, and the region was resettled by Poles from former eastern Poland, which was annexed by the Soviet Union, as well as from other regions, making Polish minority majority again. In 1948–1954 Greeks and Macedonians, refugees of the Greek Civil War, came to Lower Silesia.[23] They were temporarily admitted in five towns and villages in the region and afterwards finally settled in various cities and counties, although in the next decades some returned to Greece, and some emigrated to other countries.[24] The largest Greek-Macedonian communities were located in Zgorzelec, Wrocław, Świdnica and Wałbrzych.[25]

Cities and towns

Wrocław Town Hall
Zielona Góra

Cities and towns with over 20,000 inhabitants:

Silesian traditions in Upper Lusatia

Radomierzyce

Eastern parts of Upper Lusatia also formed part of Silesia in the early 14th century, as part of the Duchy of Jawor of fragmented Poland,[26] and again from 1815 to 1945, when the area was annexed from Saxony by Prussia and included within the Province of Silesia and later of Lower Silesia. During this time Silesian culture and the Silesian German dialect spread into this region with its centre Görlitz. The expulsion of the Germans from the east of the Oder-Neisse line led to an additional settlement of German Silesians in this region.

Due to these facts, some of the inhabitants of this region still consider themselves

Evangelical Church of Berlin-Brandenburg-Silesian Upper Lusatia
.

Towns

The main cities within the former province of Lower Silesia west of the

Oder-Neisse line
are (Upper Sorbian names in italics):

The main Lusatian cities within the former Duchy of Jawor and province of Lower Silesia east of Lusatian Neisse, now within

Lower Silesian Voivodship
are:

Tourism

Książ

The international airport is located in Wrocław – Wrocław Airport.

The A4 motorway, A18 motorway and S3 expressway run through Lower Silesia.

Lower Silesia is one of the most visited regions in Poland. It is famous for a large number of castles and palaces (more than 100), inter alia:

Gola Dzierżoniowska Castle, Oleśnica Castle, Kamieniec Ząbkowicki Palace. There is also a lot in the Jelenia Góra valley
.

The most widely visited city is Wrocław where the Festival of Good Beer is held every year on the second weekend of June.

Krzeszów Abbey, a regional pilgrimage site, which houses the oldest Marian icon in Poland and the of the oldest in Europe

Lower Silesia boasts three World Heritage Sites and 21 Historic Monuments of Poland:

Other landmarks include:

Świeradów Zdrój to Prudnik), Barycz Valley Landscape Park
.

Cuisine

In addition to traditional nationwide

kiełbasa), cheeses, honeys, beverages and various dishes and meals, officially protected by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Poland
.

Notable centers of traditional meat production include the

Sudetes Foothills, the towns of Niemcza, Sława and Rychtal, and villages around Nowe Miasteczko and Żagań, whereas centers of traditional cheese and quark production include the Central Sudetes, Siedlisko, Kamienna Góra and Zgorzelec
.

A plethora of traditional Polish honey is produced in various places, especially in the

Sudetes Foothills, Barycz River Valley, Lower Silesian and Stobrawa forests and Sulechów-Zielona Góra
region.

There is a rich variety of breads, pastries and cakes, and additionally traditional local types of gingerbread are baked in Oleśnica, Przemków and Zielona Góra.

Lower Silesia is one of the wine growing regions of Poland, with one of the leading centers of Polish wine production being Zielona Góra. Other recognized traditional beverages include the Karkonoski Liqueur from the Giant Mountains, Trzebnicki Cider from the Trzebnickie Hills, Jarzębiak, a Polish fruit vodka made from rowan berries and other fruit ingredients, produced in Zielona Góra, and beer from Lwówek Śląski and Zielona Góra.

The village of

Catholic monks used these chestnuts for medical purposes.[27]

Sport

Stadion Miejski (Wrocław)

Among the most accomplished sports clubs in Lower Silesia are football clubs

Basket Zielona Góra, Górnik Wałbrzych and handball club Śląsk Wrocław
.

Every year in September, Wrocław Marathon is organized.

See also

References

  1. ^ Demshuk, Andrew (2012). The Lost German East: Forced Migration and the Politics of Memory, 1945–1970. Cambridge University Press. p. 53. The most common statistic has been around 12 million Germans, more than one-quarter of them from Silesia. Regardless of the precise numbers, the scale is certain. In Lower Silesia, virtually the entire pre-war population was gone by 1949, and much of the architectural and artistic heritage had been damaged. ... Taking these facts into account, the border and population shifts of 1945–1949 represent the most dramatic caesura in Silesia's history.
  2. ^ Szczegóła, Hieronim (1968). Kasper Elyan z Głogowa, pierwszy polski drukarz (in Polish). Zielona Góra: Muzeum Ziemi Lubuskiej. pp. 4, 6.
  3. ^ "Informacja historyczna". Dresden-Warszawa (in Polish). Retrieved 14 October 2023.
  4. ^ Hahn, Wiktor (1948). "Juliusz Słowacki w 1848 r.". Sobótka (in Polish). III (I). Wrocław: 92.
  5. Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich
    : 405.
  6. ^ Pater, p. 407
  7. ^ Pater, pp. 405–406, 415
  8. ^ Pater, p. 412
  9. ^ Pater, pp. 414–415, 418
  10. ISSN 0137-5199
    .
  11. ^ Małgorzata Wieliczko. "100 lat niepodległości: Konsulat II RP we Wrocławiu skrywał tajemnice". www.wroclaw.pl (in Polish). Retrieved 11 September 2020.
  12. ISSN 0037-7511
    .
  13. ISBN 978-83-8098-174-4
    .
  14. ^ "History of KL Gross-Rosen". Gross-Rosen Museum in Rogoźnica. Retrieved 30 April 2020.
  15. ^ Salwador Pietruszka. "Srebnogórskie więzienie – Oflag VIII B". Przegląd Powiatowy (in Polish). Archived from the original on 13 August 2020. Retrieved 25 October 2020.
  16. ^ Magdelena Sierocińska. "Eksterminacja "niewartościowych rasowo" dzieci polskich robotnic przymusowych na terenie III Rzeszy w świetle postępowań prowadzonych przez Oddziałową Komisję Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu w Poznaniu". Instytut Pamięci Narodowej (in Polish). Retrieved 14 October 2023.
  17. ^ Sebastian Siebel-Achenbach (2006). Niederschlesien 1942 bis 1949: alliierte Diplomatie und Nachkriegswirklichheit (in German). Bergstadtverlag Wilhelm Gottlieb Korn. p. 101.
  18. ISBN 9780880331746
    .
  19. ISSN 0080-3480
    .
  20. ^ Weinhold, Karl (1887). Die Verbreitung und die Herkunft der Deutschen in Schlesien [The Spread and the Origin of Germans in Silesia] (in German). Stuttgart: J. Engelhorn.
  21. ^ Georg Hassel (1823). Statistischer Umriß der sämmtlichen europäischen und der vornehmsten außereuropäischen Staaten, in Hinsicht ihrer Entwickelung, Größe, Volksmenge, Finanz- und Militärverfassung, tabellarisch dargestellt; Erster Heft: Welcher die beiden großen Mächte Österreich und Preußen und den Deutschen Staatenbund darstellt (in German). Verlag des Geographischen Instituts Weimar. pp. 33–34. Nationalverschiedenheit 1819
  22. ^ Dillingham, William Paul; Folkmar, Daniel; Folkmar, Elnora (1911). Dictionary of Races or Peoples. United States. Immigration Commission (1907–1910). Washington, D.C.: Washington, Government Printing Office. pp. 104–105.
  23. ISSN 0037-7511
    .
  24. ^ Wojecki, p. 84, 95
  25. ^ Wojecki, p. 95
  26. ^ Köhler, Gustav (1846). Der Bund der Sechsstädte in der Ober-Lausitz: Eine Jubelschrift (in German). Görlitz: G. Heinze & Comp. p. 11.
  27. ^ a b Anna Nowakowska. "Gościęcice kasztanami słynące". TVP3 Wrocław (in Polish). Retrieved 5 November 2023.

Sources

  • Urbanek M., (2003), Dolny Śląsk. Siedem stron świata., MAK publishing, Wrocław, p. 240 + CD-ROM
  • Śląsk na weekend – touristic guide, Pascal publishing

External links

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