Lumpenproletariat
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The Social Democratic Party of Germany made wide use of the term by the turn of the century. Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky followed Marx's arguments and dismissed the revolutionary potential of the group, while Mao Zedong argued that proper leadership could utilize it. The word Lumpenproletariat, popularized in the West by Frantz Fanon's The Wretched of the Earth in the 1960s, has been adopted as a sociological term. However, what some consider to be its vagueness and its history as a term of abuse has led to some criticism. Some revolutionary groups, most notably the Black Panther Party and the Young Lords, have sought to mobilize the Lumpenproletariat.
Overview
Etymology
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels are generally considered to have coined the term Lumpenproletariat.[2][3] It is composed of the German word Lumpen, which is usually translated as "ragged"[4][5] and prolétariat, a French word adopted as a common Marxist term for the class of wage earners in a capitalist system. Hal Draper argued that the root is lump ("knave"), not lumpen.[3] Bussard noted that the meaning of lump shifted from being a person dressed in rags in the 17th century to knavery in the 19th century.[6]
Definition
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language defines it as "the lowest stratum of the proletariat. Used originally in Marxist theory to describe those members of the proletariat, especially criminals, vagrants, and the unemployed, who lacked awareness of their collective interest as an oppressed class."[7] In modern usage, it is commonly defined to include the chronically unemployed, the homeless, and career criminals.[8] The Communist Party USA website defines it as follows:[9]
Generally unemployable people who make no positive contribution to an economy. Sometimes described as the bottom layer of a capitalist society. May include criminal and mentally unstable people. Some activists consider them "most radical" because they are "most exploited," but they are un-organizable and more likely to act as paid agents than to have any progressive role in class struggle.
In English translations of Marx and Engels, lumpenproletariat has sometimes been rendered as "social scum", "dangerous classes", "ragamuffin", and "ragged-proletariat".[3] It has been described by some scholars and theorists, as well as the Soviet nomenclature, as a declassed (déclassé) group.[10][11][12][13][14] The term "underclass" is considered to be the modern synonym of lumpenproleteriat.[15][a] Scholars note its negative connotations.[b] Economist Richard McGahey, writing for the New York Times in 1982, noted that it is one of the older terms in a "long line of labels that stigmatize poor people for their poverty by focusing exclusively on individual characteristics." He listed the following synonyms: "underclass", "undeserving poor", and "culture of poverty".[18] Another synonym is "riff-raff".[19] The word is used in some languages as a pejorative. In English it may be used in an informal disapproving manner to "describe people who are not clever or well educated, and who are not interested in changing or improving their situation."[20]
Usage by Marx and Engels
According to historian Robert Bussard, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels viewed the lumpenproletariat as:[21]
essentially parasitical group was largely the remains of older, obsolete stages of social development, and that it could not normally play a progressive role in history. Indeed, because it acted only out of socially ignorant self-interest, the lumpenproletariat was easily bribed by reactionary forces and could be used to combat the true proletariat in its efforts to bring about the end of bourgeois society. Without a clear class-consciousness, the lumpenproletariat could not play a positive role in society. Instead, it exploited society for its own ends, and was in turn exploited as a tool of destruction and reaction.
They used the term exclusively with negative connotations, although their works lack "consistent and clearly reasoned definition" of the term.[22] They used the term in various publications "for diverse purposes and on several levels of meaning."[21]
In early writings
The first collaborative work by
In The Communist Manifesto (1848), where lumpenproletariat is commonly translated in English editions as the "dangerous class" and the "social scum",[28][29][30][31] Marx and Engels wrote:[21]
The lumpenproletariat is passive decaying matter of the lowest layers of the old society, is here and there thrust into the [progressive] movement by a proletarian revolution; [however,] in accordance with its whole way of life, it is more likely to sell out to reactionary intrigues.
In writings on France
In an article analyzing the
They belonged for the most part to the lumpenproletariat, which forms a mass clearly distinguished from the industrial proletariat in all large cities, a recruiting ground for thieves and criminals of all kinds, living on the refuse of society, people without a fixed line of work.
In The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon Marx identified Napoleon III as the "Chief of the Lumpenproletariat," a claim he made repeatedly. He argued that he bought his supporters with "gifts and loans, these were the limits of the financial science of the lumpenproletariat, both the low and the exalted. Never had a President speculated more stupidly on the stupidity of the masses." For Marx, the lumpenproletariat represented those who were "corrupt, reactionary and without a clear sense of class-consciousness."[36] He wrote in The Eighteenth Brumaire:[37]
Alongside ruined roués with questionable means of support and of dubious origin, degenerate and adventurous scions of the bourgeoisie, there were vagabonds, discharged soldiers, discharged convicts, runaway galley slaves, swindlers, charlatans, lazzaroni, pickpockets, tricksters, gamblers, procurers, brothel keepers, porters, literati, organ grinders, rag-pickers, knife-grinders, tinkers, beggars; in short, the entirely undefined, disintegrating mass, thrown hither and yon, which the French call la bohème.
Capital
In
Left-wing views
Social Democratic Party of Germany
The
Bolsheviks and the Soviet Union
a declassed strata in an antagonistic society (includingfascist pogrombands, and in other ways. The lumpen proletariat disappears with the abolition of the capitalist system.
The term was rarely used in the Soviet Union to describe any portion of the Soviet society because, Hemmerle argues, following the Russian Revolution of 1917 "millions of people passed through economic conditions that bore a resemblance to the traditional meaning of lumpenproletariat". However, it was used to label labor movements in capitalist countries which were not pro-Soviet.[1] Soviet authorities and scholars instead reserved other terms for their own lumpenproletariat groups, especially "déclassé elements" (деклассированные элементы, deklassirovannye elementy), and viewed them, like Marx, as "social degenerates, isolated from the forces of production and incapable of having a working-class consciousness." Svetlana Stephenson notes that the Soviet state "for all its ideology of assistance, cooperation and social responsibility, was ready to descend on them with all its might."[45]
China
Mao Zedong argued in 1939 that the lumpenproletariat (Chinese: 游民无产者, pinyin: yóumín wúchǎnzhě) in China is a legacy of the country's "colonial and semi-colonial status" which forced a vast number of people in urban and rural areas into illegitimate occupations and activities.[46] Earlier, in 1928, he asserted that "the only way" to win over these wayward proletarians was to carry out intensive thought reform "so as to effect qualitative changes in these elements."[47] He argued that the lumpenproletariat had a dual nature. Simultaneously, they were "victimized members of the laboring masses and untrustworthy elements with 'parasitic inclinations'", which made them waver between revolution and counterrevolution.[47] He believed that lumpenproletariat elements, such as triads, the organized crime syndicates, "can become revolutionary given proper leadership".[48] According to Luo Ruiqing, the Minister of Public Security, the lumpenproletariat population consisted of sex workers, vagrant gangs, and theft rings and were political problems that threatened the internal security of China. Following the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War and the proclamation of the People's Republic of China (PRC), lumpenproletariat were interned into government-run reeducation centers. Some 500,000 people were interned into 920 such centers by 1953.[49] Historian Aminda Smith notes that the "case of lumpenproletariat reformatories suggests that anti-state resistance from members of the oppressed masses was essential to early-PRC rhetoric because it validated claims about the devastating effects of the old society and the transformative power of socialist 'truth'."[50]
Views on its revolutionary potential
By the early 1970s some
Fanon's use of the term prompted debates and studies, including by Pierre Bourdieu and Charles van Onselen.[55] The African revolutionary Amílcar Cabral was skeptical about the lumpen being used in anti-colonialist liberation revolution.[12] His African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde recruited déclassé, but not lumpenproletariat, groups as the latter were supportive of the Portuguese colonial police, while the former, in the absence of a developed proletariat in Guinea and Cape Verde, played a dynamic role in anti-colonialist struggle.[56] Historian Martin Meredith wrote that Ethiopian ruler Mengistu Haile Mariam used "the lumpen-proletariat of the slums" to help with his Red Terror.[57]
Black Panther Party
Laura Pulido argues that, historically, the lumpenproletariat in the US has mostly been African American due to the nation being racially constituted. It is primarily indicated by the high unemployment and incarceration rates among African Americans.[58] The Black Panther Party, most prominent revolutionary socialists in post-war US, "thought of much of their following as lumpenproletarian."[59] They adopted Fanon's viewpoint regarding the revolutionary potential of the group.[53] Pulido claims the emphasis the Black Panthers put on the lumpenproletariat was the party's hallmark.[16] Its co-founders Bobby Seale and Huey P. Newton viewed the African-American lumpenproletariat as a potential organized threat if the party did not mobilize them. Seale included "the brother who's pimping, the brother who's hustling, the unemployed, the downtrodden, the brother who's robbing banks, who's not politically conscious" in his definition of the lumpenproletariat.[60] Newton called them "street brothers", alienated from the system of oppression in the US, and sought to recruit them into the party.[53] Their strategy was a controversial one. Chris Booker and Errol Henderson argued that problems such as "a lack of discipline, a tendency toward violence, the importation of street culture, including crime, and the use of weapons" by Black Panthers was caused by the disproportionately high membership of the lumpenproletariat in their ranks.[61][62]
Young Lords Party
The Young Lords Party adopted similar views to the Black Panther Party, believing in the potential of the lumpen. They developed a Lumpen Organization within their larger organization with the goal of enlisting the people considered the lumpenproletariat, or "lumpen," in the struggle; they considered the lumpen to be "the class in our nation which for years and years have not been able to find jobs, and are forced to be drug addicts, prostitutes, etc." (p. 20) in the face of the capitalist system the Party considered an enemy.[63] Crucial to the party's view on the lumpen is that, unlike criticisms of the lumpenproletariat around a perceived lack of productivity and organization, the Young Lords Party stated that "it's a law of revolution that the most oppressed group takes the leadership position" (p. 42) and that the lumpen would be the immediate focus of the party's organizing efforts in liberating all oppressed peoples.[63]
Criticism
Ernesto Laclau argued that Marx's dismissal of the lumpenproletariat showed the limitations of his theory of economic determinism and argued that the group and "its possible integration into the politics of populism as an 'absolute outside' that threatens the coherence of ideological identifications."[64] Mark Cowling argues that the "concept is being used for its political impact rather than because it provides good explanations" and that its political impact is "pernicious" and an "obstacle to clear analysis."[65] Laura Pulido argues that there is a diversity in the lumpen population, especially in terms of consciousness.[58]
Anarchist criticism
Post-anarchist
that eternal 'meat', [...] that great rabble of the people (underdogs, 'dregs of society') ordinarily designated by Marx and Engels in the picturesque and contemptuous phrase lumpenproletariat. I have in mind the 'riffraff', that 'rabble' almost unpolluted by bourgeois civilization, which carries in its inner being and in its aspirations [...] all the seeds of the socialism of the future...
Other uses
Robert Ritter, the head of Nazi Germany's efforts to track the genealogies of the Romani, considered them a "highly inferior Lumpenproletariat" as they were "parasites who lacked ambition and many of them had become habitual criminals."[71] The Romani were seen in post-World War II communist-ruled eastern and central Europe as an example of the lumpenproletariat and were, therefore, subject to an aggressive policy of assimilation.[72]
Ken Gelder noted that in cultural studies, subcultures are "often positioned outside of class, closer in kind to Marx's lumpenproletariat, lacking social consciousness, self-absorbed or self-interested, at a distance from organised or sanctioned forms of labour, and so on."[73]
In Ukraine, titushky, pro-Viktor Yanukovych thugs active during the Euromaidan protests in 2013–14, were characterized as lumpen elements.[74]
In American political discourse
The 1979 report of the Carnegie Council on Policy Studies in Higher Education warned that the US is in danger of creating "a permanent underclass, a self‐perpetuating culture of poverty, a substantial 'lumpen proletariat'."[75] Eleanor Holmes Norton wrote in 1985: "An American version of a lumpenproletariat (the so-called underclass), without work and without hope, existing at the margins of society, could bring down the great cities, sap resources and strength from the entire society and, lacking the usual means to survive, prey upon those who possess them."[76] According to political scientist Marie Gottschalk the tough-on-crime stance on African Americans has been caused by political manipulation of public fears of a lumpen underclass threatening the majority as African Americans were perceived to have turned to crime due to losing in the deindustrialization of the country.[77]
Mark Cowling argued that there is considerable similarity in both definition and function between the lumpenproletariat, as proposed by Marx, and the contemporary theory of the underclass by Charles Murray, an American conservative political scientist.[78] Although Murray and Richard Herrnstein did not use the term in their 1994 book The Bell Curve, Malcolm Browne noted in a New York Times review that the authors argue that the United States is being "split between an isolated caste of ruling meritocrats on one hand and a vast, powerless Lumpenproletariat on the other. Society, the authors predict, will have little use for this underclass in a world dominated by sophisticated machines and the bright human beings who tend them."[79]
Several commentators and researchers have analyzed Donald Trump's political base as modern American lumpenproletariat.[80][81][82] Trumpen Proletariat was coined by Jonah Goldberg in 2015 to describe Trump's "biggest fans", who he believed "are not to be relied upon in the conservative cause" in the same way the lumpenproletariat was not to be relied upon for a socialist revolution.[83] Daniel Henninger used the term as well in The Wall Street Journal.[84] Francis Levy compared "basket of deplorables", Hillary Clinton's phrase to characterize some Trump supporters during the 2016 presidential election campaign, to Marx's rhetoric of the lumpenproletariat.[85] In 2020 Ryan Lizza coined Biden Proletariat to describe an underclass of campaign workers and supporters – "veterans of the Biden campaign" – who were cast aside during post-election White House staffing, thus carrying on a tradition in Democratic politics of abandoning loyal political workers in favor of well-connected political elites.[86]
Usage in India
Genocides and crimes against humanity
Due to a desire to keep clean the hands of the larger public, paramilitary groups are often used to commit atrocities and they often recruit mainly among criminals, said to be used to violence and brutality and wanting to enjoy an occasion to loot.[91] The lumpenproletariat has been described as being more likely to adhere to doctrines calling for ethnic cleansing and to organize in militias.[92]
During the Armenian genocide, prisoners were pardoned and released from prison to serve in bands, or çetes. Criminals and other elements of the lumpenproletariat hoped to gain respectability and wealth through their participation to genocide.[91][93][94]
The Dirlewanger Brigade recruited poachers and criminals to wage the Bandenbekämpfung on the Eastern Front.[95]
In Kigali, during the Rwandan genocide, the Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi, who recruited among the poorer elements of the population, started to draw a "lumpenproletariat of street boys".[96]
The various Serbian militias of the Bosnian War such as the Serb Volunteer Guard and the White Eagles were described as recruiting among the lumpenproletariat.[97] Eighty percent of the Bosnian Serb paramilitary troops were said to be criminals, and Croat and Bosnian units similarly drew criminals into their ranks.[91][98]
In Darfur, some Janjaweed were convicts recruited in prison or bandits who joined governmental forces.[91][99][100] Marc Lavergne, author of Le Soudan contemporain, described them as a "rural lumpenproletariat."[101][102]
Sociological research
Political leanings
Ernesto Ragionieri, an Italian Marxist historian, argued to have confirmed in his 1953 book Un comune socialista that the lumpenproletariat is essentially a conservative force based on his study of Sesto Fiorentino. He found that some 450–500 members of the working class had joined the liberal-conservative party, which was led by landowners, industrialists, and professionals in hopes of getting recommendation that would allow them to join Richard-Ginori, the largest local employer, which refused to hire socialists.[103]
Violence
In 1966 sociologist David Matza cited disorder and violence as two of the most prominent characteristics of the disreputable poor.[17][104] In his 1977 book Class, State, and Crime, Marxist historian Richard Quinney defined lumpen crimes (or "predatory crimes") as those intended for purely personal profit.[105] In a 1986 study sociologist David Brownfield defined the lumpen-proletariat (or the "disreputable poor") by their unemployment and receipt of welfare benefits.[106] He concluded that "while no significant effects of class can be found using a neo-Marxist conception of class, gradational measures of class (occupation and education) ... Measures of disreputable poverty—unemployment and welfare status [recipiency]—are relatively strong correlates of violent behavior."[107] He explained:[108]
The frustrations and the anger associated with unemployment and being on welfare are compounded by the lack of such fundamental necessities as food, clothing, and shelter among some of the disreputable poor. It would seem self-evident that such an environment of absolute deprivation may be the breeding grounds for discontent and violence.
Derivations
Several terms have been coined in imitation of lumpenproletariat such as:
- lumpenintelligentsia, to depreciatively describe in Britain, "a section of the intelligentsia regarded as making no useful contribution to society, or as lacking taste, culture, etc. Also more generally: the intelligentsia collectively, regarded as worthless or powerless."[109]
- the term lumpenbourgeoisie was coined by German Socialist writers in the 1920s, in part to explain the rise of Hitler and National Socialism.[110] It was reinvented and made popular again by sociologist Andre Gunder Frank in his works on dependency theory, where the so described class is complicit in maintaining a flow of resources from, and at the expense of, their own poor states at the "periphery" to a "core" of wealthy states[111]
- lumpen militariat, coined by Ali Mazrui in 1973, to describe the newly emerging "class of semi-organized, rugged, and semi-literate soldiery which has begun to claim a share of power and influence in what would otherwise have become a heavily privileged meritocracy of the educated" in post-colonial Africa.[112]
References
- Notes
- Citations
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4129-1807-7.
- ^ Bussard 1987, p. 680.
- ^ a b c d Thoburn 2002, p. 440.
- ^ Bussard 1987, p. 675.
- ^ "lumpenproletariat". Collins English Dictionary.
German, literally: ragged proletariat
- ^ Bussard 1987, p. 679.
- TheFreeDictionary.com.
- ISBN 9781412997843.
- ^ "Glossary of Communist Terminology". cp-texas.org. Communist Party USA Texas. Archived from the original on 8 January 2022.
- ^ Kernig, Claus Dieter [in German] (1972). Marxism, Communism, and Western Society: Class, Class struggle. New York: Herder and Herder. p. 3.
...declassed groups (the Lumpen- proletariat, beggars)...
- ISBN 9780520048294.
...population of declassed or lumpen proletariat....
- ^ a b Abdullah 2006, p. 100.
- ^ ISBN 9781780935706.
- ^ Thoburn 2002, p. 435.
- JSTOR 2151796.
underclass, like lumpen proletariat, is also a suitable concept for those who, like Karl Marx, want to identify a group shaped and dominated by a society's economic and political forces but who have no productive role.
- ^ a b Pulido 2006, p. 142.
- ^ a b c Brownfield 1986, p. 426.
- ^ McGahey, Richard (12 March 1982). "Poverty's Voguish Stigma". The New York Times.
- ^ Carr, Edwar Hallett (1938). Karl Marx: A Study in Fanaticism. Dent. p. 60.
...Marx had a name for these proletarians who had not yet seen the light — the Lumpenproletariat or riff-raff...
- ^ "lumpen". dictionary.cambridge.org. Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary.
- ^ a b c d Bussard 1987, p. 677.
- ^ a b c d Bussard 1987, p. 676.
- ^ a b c Bussard 1987, p. 683.
- ^ a b Denning 2010, p. 87.
- ^ Marx, Karl; Engels, Friedrich (1976) [1846]. The German Ideology (3rd ed.). Moscow: Progress Publishers. p. 93.
- .
- ^ Engels, Friedrich. 1978. "The Peasant War in Germany". In The Collected Works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, vol. 10, 397–482. New York: International.; Also in Engels, Friedrich (1926). "The Economic Situation and Social Classes in Germany". The Peasant War in Germany. Translated by Moissaye Joseph Olgin. New York: International Publishers. (web view)
- ^ Hayes 1988, p. 447.
- ^ Marx, Karl; Engels, Friedrich (1888). Manifesto of the Communist Party. Translated by Samuel Moore. Chicago: Charles H. Kerr Publishing Company. p. 27.
{{cite book}}
:|translator=
has generic name (help) - S2CID 143725693.
- ^ "Lumpenproletariat". marxists.org. Marxists Internet Archive. Archived from the original on 2017-10-31.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) () - ^ Thoburn 2002, p. 441.
- ^ Thoburn 2002, p. 444.
- ^ a b Bussard 1987, p. 684.
- ^ Hayes 1988, p. 449.
- ^ Bussard 1987, p. 685.
- ^ Bussard 1987, pp. 685–686.
- ^ Hayes 1988, p. 458.
- ISBN 9781134504459.
- .
- ISBN 9781782382478.
- ^ ISBN 9789004322370.
- ISBN 978-81-87879-44-2.
- TheFreeDictionary.com. (original Russian text)
- ISBN 978-0-7546-1813-3.
- ^ Smith 2013, pp. 939–940.
- ^ a b Smith 2013, p. 940.
- ^ Cowling 2002, pp. 233, 241: cited in Zedong, Mao (1967). "Analysis of the Classes in Chinese Society". Selected Works: Volume 1. Peking: Foreign Languages Press. p. 19.
- ^ Smith 2013, p. 945.
- ^ Smith 2013, pp. 950–951.
- ^ Winter, Mary (May 1974). "Class Consciousness and the British Working Class". Marxism Today. 18: 155.
- ^ Maisano, Chris (March 2011). "Letter to the Next Left". Jacobin.
- ^ ISBN 9780933121966.
- ^ Abdullah 2006, p. 104.
- ^ Denning 2010, p. 88.
- ^ Abdullah 2006, p. 101.
- ^ Meredith, Martin (2011). The State of Africa: A History Of The Continent Since Independence. PublicAffairs. p. 246.
- ^ a b Pulido 2006, p. 143.
- ^ Cowling 2002, p. 233.
- ^ Seale, Bobby (1970). Seize the Time. New York: Random House.
- ^ Pulido 2006, p. 144: Chris Booker, "Lumpenization: A Critical Error of the Black Panther Party," in Charles Jones, Black Panther Party Reconsidered, Baltimore: Black Classic Press, 1998, p. 341; Errol Henderson, "Black Nationalism and Rap Music," Journal of Black Studies 26 (January 1996): 308–39
- S2CID 141057732.
- ^ a b Enck-Wanzer, Darrel. The Young Lords a Reader. New York: New York UP, 2010. Web.
- ISBN 9780748646654.
- ^ Cowling 2002, pp. 237–238.
- ISBN 9780748654161.
- ^ Thoburn 2002, p. 445.
- ^ Thoburn 2002, p. 446.
- ^ Robertson, Ann. "Marxism and Anarchism: The Philosophical Roots of the Marx-Bakunin Conflict" (PDF). workerscompass.org. A Workers Action Pamphlet. p. 20. web version
- ISBN 978-0394717838.
- ISBN 9780195125566.
- ISBN 978-1-932716-33-7.
- ISBN 9781134181278.
- Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies.
The lumpen elements now known as titushky...
- ^ Maeroff, Gene I. (28 November 1979). "Panel Proposes Broad Changes in Education and Job Preparation". The New York Times.
- ^ Norton, Eleanor Holmes (2 June 1985). "Restoring the Traditional Black Family". The New York Times.
- ^ Gottschalk, Marie (March 2015). "It's Not Just the Drug War". Jacobin.
- ^ Cowling 2002, p. 228.
- ^ Browne, Malcolm (16 October 1994). "What Is Intelligence, and Who Has It?". The New York Times.
- ISBN 978-0-472-12808-2.
- ^ Jonathan Russo (December 9, 2020). "The Lumpenproletariat: The Long-Discarded Economic Theory That Helps Explain An Increasingly Divided America". Talking Points Memo. Retrieved January 1, 2022.
- ^ Clyde W. Barrow (August 30, 2020). "Donald Trump: A New Emperor of the Lumpenproletariat?". Retrieved January 21, 2022.
- ^ Goldberg, Jonah (5 September 2015). "Donald Trump's Popularity – It's Corrupting Conservatism". National Review.
- ^ Henninger, Daniel (6 July 2016). "The Trumpen Proletariat". The Wall Street Journal.
- ^ Levy, Francis (30 March 2017). "The Final Solution: The Lumpenproletariat". HuffPost.
- ^ Lizza, Ryan (2020-11-24). "People are pissed: Tensions rise amid scramble for Biden jobs". Politico.
- ^ Weinraub, Bernard (25 April 1973). "Terror Is Past, but Calcutta Is Uneasy Over Repression". The New York Times.
- ISBN 9780521805308.
A variety of lumpen groups, especially unemployed youth in northern India, have joined right-wing proto-fascist movements in recent years – such as RSS
- ^ Varma, Pavan K. (30 July 2016). "BJP's faultline stands exposed: Hindutva preaches Hindu unity, yet attacks Dalits in the name of cow protection". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 28 January 2017.
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) () - ^ Mungekar, Bhalchandra (28 June 2017). "Dalit vs Dalit". The Indian Express. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017.
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) () - ^ ISBN 978-1-317-23438-8.
- Mai Maidu Congo ou les cavaliers Janjawid du Soudan.
- ISBN 978-0-85771-930-0.
- ISBN 978-1-78672-598-1.
The formation of the çetes (bands) offered even deprived strata of society – a lumpenproletariat – the possibility of gaining visibility and patriotic 'dignity' and of claiming their own portion of the Armenians' 'abandoned' wealth, however restricted that might be.
- ^ Bell, J. Bowyer (1966). Besieged; Seven Cities Under Siege: Madrid, 1936-1939; London, 1940-1941; Singapore, 1941-1942; Stalingrad, 1942-1943; Warsaw, 1939, 1943, 1944; Jerusalem, 1947-1949; Berlin, 1945-1949. Chilton Books. p. 190.
- ISBN 978-1-85065-372-1.
As soon as they went into action, they drew around them a cloud of even poorer people, a lumpenproletariat of street boys, rag-pickers, car-washers and homeless unemployed. For these people the genocide was the best thing that could ever happen to them.
- ISBN 978-1-84277-003-0.)
It was mainly the poorer strata of Serbian society, the lumpenproletariat or rural poor, who gave birth to Bokan's and Arkan's volunteers, as well as to many members of the Eagles and Arkan's Tigers
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link - ISBN 978-1-134-71480-3.
- ^ Flint, Julie; Watch (Organization), Human Rights; Rone, Jemera; Lefkow, Leslie (2004). Sudan, Darfur Destroyed: Ethnic Cleansing by Government and Miltia Forces in Western Sudan. Human Rights Watch. pp. 48–49.
- ISBN 978-0-19-882524-1.
- ISSN 0306-4220.
- ^ "Dans la misère du Darfour". Le Monde.fr (in French). 2004-09-04. Retrieved 2023-08-11.
- ISBN 9780801488603.
- ^ Matza, David (1966). "The Disreputable Poor". In Bendix, Reinhard; Lipset, Seymour M. (eds.). Class, Status and Power. New York: Free Press.
- ISBN 9780791417591.; original source: Quinney, Richard (1977). Class, State, and Crime: On Theory and Practice of Criminal Justice. New York: D. McKay Co. pp. 55–57.
- ^ Brownfield 1986, p. 421.
- ^ Brownfield 1986, p. 435.
- ^ Brownfield 1986, p. 429.
- OxfordDictionaries.com. Oxford University Press. Archived from the originalon July 31, 2017.
- ^ Luxemburg, Rosa; Mehring, Franz; Schneller, Ernst, eds. (1925). "Zeitschrift für Praxis und Theorie des Marxismus". Die Internationale: Zeitschrift für Praxis und Theorie des Marxismus. 6. Neue Kritik: 72.
- ISBN 0-85345-235-0
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- Pulido, Laura (2006). Black, Brown, Yellow, and Left: Radical Activism in Los Angeles. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520245204.
- Smith, Aminda M. (2013). "Thought Reform and the Unreformable: Reeducation Centers and the Rhetoric of Opposition in the Early People's Republic of China". S2CID 162866252.
- Stallybrass, Peter (Summer 1990). "Marx and Heterogeneity: Thinking the Lumpenproletariat". JSTOR 2928400.
- Thoburn, Nicholas (2002). "Difference in Marx: the lumpenproletariat and the proletarian unnamable". Economy and Society. 31 (3): 434–460. S2CID 53466836.
Further reading
- Bourdin, Jean-Claude (2013). "Marx and the Lumpenproletariat". )
- Bovenkerk, Frank [in Dutch] (1984). "The Rehabilitation of the Rabble: How and why Marx and Engels wrongly depicted the lumpenproletariat as a reactionary force". Netherlands Journal of Sociology. 20: 13–41.
- ISSN 0013-0567.
- Hayes, Peter. “Utopia and the Lumpenproletariat: Marx’s Reasoning in ‘The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte.’” The Review of Politics 50, no. 3 (1988): 445–65. online.
- Mills, Nathaniel (2017). Ragged Revolutionaries: The Lumpenproletariat and African American Marxism in. Depression-Era Literature. ISBN 978-1-62534-279-9.