Luxembourg

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Coordinates: 49°48′52″N 06°07′54″E / 49.81444°N 6.13167°E / 49.81444; 6.13167
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the country. For its capital, see Luxembourg City. For the Belgian province, see Luxembourg (Belgium). For other uses, see Luxembourg (disambiguation).

Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
  • Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg​ (
    Luxembourgish)
  • Grand-Duché de Luxembourg​ (French)
  • Großherzogtum Luxemburg​ (German
)
Motto: "
Luxembourgish

Administrative languages:
  • 21.4% other
    • Religion
    (2018[2])
    • 23.4%
      Deputy Prime Minister
    		Xavier Bettel
    • Speaker
    		Claude Wiseler
    LegislatureChamber of Deputies
    Independence
    • From the French Empire and elevation to Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
    		9 June 1815
    • Independence in personal Union with the Netherlands (Treaty of London)
    		19 April 1839
    • Reaffirmation of Independence Treaty of London
    		11 May 1867
    23 November 1890
    • Occupation during World War I by the German Empire
    		1 August 1914
    • Liberation from the Greater German Reich
    		1944/1945
    • Admitted to the United Nations
    		24 October 1945
    • Founded the EEC[a]
    		1 January 1958
    UTC+1 was adopted as standard time,[1] with a +0:35:24 offset (+1:35:24 during DST) from Luxembourg City's LMT.
    Date formatdd.mm.yyyy
    Driving sideright
    Calling code+352
    ISO 3166 codeLU
    Internet TLD.lub
    1. Not the same as the
      Het Wilhelmus of the Netherlands.
    2. The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states.
    3. ^ "Field Listing – Distribution of family income – Gini index". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original
    on 13 June 2007. Retrieved 3 May 2013.
    Map
    Interactive map showing the border of Luxembourg

    Luxembourg (

    German neighbors; while Luxembourgish is the only national language of the Luxembourgish people and of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg,[13][14] French is the only language for legislation, and all three – Luxembourgish, German and French – are used for administrative matters in the country.[13]

    With an area of 2,586 square kilometers (998 sq mi), Luxembourg is

    Grand Duke Henri, making it the world's only remaining sovereign grand duchy
    .

    Luxembourg is a

    OECD, the United Nations, NATO, and the Benelux.[23][24] It served on the United Nations Security Council for the first time in 2013 and 2014.[25]

    History

    Main article:
    Count of Luxembourg Henry VII became King of the Romans and later Holy Roman Emperor;[29] the House of Luxembourg would produce four Holy Roman Emperors during the High Middle Ages. In 1354, Charles IV elevated the county to the Duchy of Luxembourg.[30] The duchy eventually became part of the Burgundian Circle and then one of the Seventeen Provinces of the Habsburg Netherlands.[31]

    Over the centuries, the City and

    First French Republic and Empire under Napoleon.[33]

    The present-day state of Luxembourg first emerged at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The Grand Duchy, with its powerful fortress, became an independent state under the personal possession of William I of the Netherlands with a Prussian garrison to guard the city against another invasion from France.[34][30] In 1839, following the turmoil of the Belgian Revolution, the purely French-speaking part of Luxembourg was ceded to Belgium and the Luxembourgish-speaking part (except the Arelerland, the area around Arlon) became what is the present state of Luxembourg.[34]

    Before AD 963

    Main article: Celtic Luxembourg
    Text page from the Codex Aureus of Echternach, an important surviving codex, was produced in the Abbey of Echternach in the 11th century.[35]

    The first traces of settlement in what is now Luxembourg are dated back to the

    Celtic tribes settled in the region between the rivers Rhine and Meuse.[36]

    Six centuries later the Romans would name the Celtic tribes inhabiting these exact regions collectively as the Treveri. Many examples of archaeological evidence proving their existence in Luxembourg have been discovered, the most famous being the Oppidum of Titelberg.

    In around 58 to 51 BC, the Romans invaded the country when Julius Caesar conquered Gaul and part of Germania up to the Rhine border, thus the area of what is now Luxembourg became part of the Roman Empire for the next 450 years, living in relative peace under the Pax Romana.

    Similar to those in Gaul, the Celts of Luxembourg adopted Roman culture, language, morals and a way of life, effectively becoming what historians later described as Gallo-Roman civilization.[37] Evidence from that period includes the Dalheim Ricciacum and the Vichten mosaic, on display at the National Museum of History and Art in Luxembourg City.[38]

    The territory was infiltrated by the

    Kingdom of the Franks. The Salian Franks who settled in the area are often described as the ones having brought the Germanic language to present-day Luxembourg, since the old Frankish language spoken by them is considered by linguists to be a direct forerunner of the Moselle Franconian dialect, which later evolved into, among others, the modern-day Luxembourgish language.[39]: 70 [40]

    The Christianization of Luxembourg is usually dated back to the end of the 7th century. The most famous figure in this context is Willibrord, a Northumbrian missionary saint, who together with other monks established the Abbey of Echternach in AD 698,[41] and is celebrated annually in the dancing procession of Echternach. For a few centuries the abbey would become one of northern Europe's most influential abbeys. The Codex Aureus of Echternach, an important surviving codex written entirely in gold ink, was produced here in the 11th century.[35] The so-called Emperor's Bible and the Golden Gospels of Henry III were also produced in Echternach at this time.[42][43]: 9–25 

    Emergence and expansion of the County of Luxemburg (963–1312)

    Main article: County of Luxembourg
    Charles IV, the 14th-century Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia from the House of Luxembourg[44]

    When the

    Kingdom of Lotharingia (855–959) and finally of the Duchy of Lorraine (959–1059), which itself had become a state of the Holy Roman Empire.[45]

    The recorded history of Luxembourg begins with the acquisition of Lucilinburhuc

    Count of Luxembourg", and with it effectively creating the independent County of Luxembourg (which was still a state within the Holy Roman Empire).[48]

    By the middle of the 13th century the counts of Luxembourg had managed to gain considerable wealth and power and had expanded their territory from the river

    vassal states to the County of Luxembourg.[49] The only major setback during their rise in power came in 1288, when Henry VI and his three brothers died at the Battle of Worringen while trying unsuccessfully to add the Duchy of Limburg to their realm. But despite the defeat, the Battle of Worringen helped the Counts of Luxembourg to achieve military glory, which they had previously lacked, as they had mostly enlarged their territory by means of inheritances, marriages and fiefdoms.[50]

    The ascension of the Counts of Luxembourg culminated when Henry VII became King of the Romans, King of Italy and finally, in 1312, Holy Roman Emperor.[51]

    Golden Age: The House of Luxembourg contending for supremacy in Central Europe (1312–1443)

    Main article: Duchy of Luxembourg
    Historic map (undated) of Luxembourg City's fortifications

    With the ascension of Henry VII as Emperor, the dynasty of the House of Luxembourg not only began to rule the Holy Roman Empire, but rapidly began to exercise growing influence over other parts of Central Europe as well.

    Henry's son,

    King of Bohemia. He remains a major figure in Luxembourgish history and folklore and is considered by many historians the epitome of chivalry in medieval times. He is also known for having founded the Schueberfouer in 1340 and for his heroic death at the Battle of Crécy in 1346.[52][53] John the Blind is considered a national hero in Luxembourg.[54]

    In the 14th and early 15th centuries, three more members of the House of Luxembourg reigned as Holy Roman Emperors and Bohemian Kings: John's descendants

    County of Chiny in 1364, and with it, the territories of the new Duchy of Luxembourg reached its greatest extent.[55]

    During these 130 years, the House of Luxembourg was contending with the House of Habsburg for supremacy within the Holy Roman Empire and Central Europe. It all came to end in 1443, when the House of Luxembourg suffered a succession crisis, precipitated by the lack of a male heir to assume the throne. Since Sigismund and Elizabeth of Görlitz were both heirless, all possessions of the Luxembourg Dynasty were redistributed among the European aristocracy.[56] The Duchy of Luxembourg become a possession of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy.[57]

    As the House of Luxembourg had become extinct and Luxembourg now became part of the Burgundian Netherlands, this would mark the start of nearly 400 years of foreign rule over Luxembourg.

    Luxembourg under Habsburg rule and repeated French invasions (1444–1794)

    See also: Fortress of Luxembourg

    In 1482,

    Philip the Handsome inherited all of what became then known as the Habsburg Netherlands, and with it the Duchy of Luxembourg. For nearly 320 years Luxembourg would remain a possession of the mighty House of Habsburg, at first under Austrian rule (1506–1556), then under Spanish rule (1556–1714), before going back again to Austrian rule (1714–1794)
    .
    With having become a Habsburg possession, the Duchy of Luxembourg became, like many countries in Europe at the time, heavily involved in the many conflicts for dominance of Europe between the Habsburg-held countries and the     Kingdom of France.

    In 1542, the

    King of France, Francois I, invaded Luxembourg twice, but the Habsburgs under Charles V managed to reconquer the Duchy each time.[58]

    Luxembourg became part of the Spanish Netherlands in 1556, and when France and Spain went to war in 1635 it resulted in the Treaty of the Pyrenees, in which the first partition of Luxembourg was decided. Under the Treaty, Spain ceded the Luxembourgish fortresses of Stenay, Thionville, and Montmédy, and the surrounding territory to France, effectively reducing the size of Luxembourg for the first time in centuries.[59]

    In context of the Nine Years' War in 1684, France invaded Luxembourg again, conquering and occupying the Duchy until 1697 when it was returned to the Spanish in order to garner support for the Bourbon cause during the prelude to the War of the Spanish Succession. When the war broke out in 1701 Luxembourg and the Spanish Netherlands were administered by the pro-French faction under the governor Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria and sided with the Bourbons. The duchy was subsequently occupied by the pro-Austrian allied forces during the conflict and was awarded to Austria at its conclusion in 1714.[60]

    As the Duchy of Luxembourg repeatedly passed back and forth from Spanish and Austrian to French rule, each of the conquering nations contributed to strengthening and expanding the

    Marquis de Vauban who advanced the fortifications around and on the heights of the city, fortification walls that are still visible today.[59]

    Luxembourg under French rule (1794–1815)

    See also: Forêts and Secularism in France

    During the

    resisted for nearly 7 months before the Austrian forces holding it surrendered. Luxembourg's long defense led Lazare Carnot to call Luxembourg "the best fortress in the world, except Gibraltar", giving rise to the city's nickname the Gibraltar of the North.[63]

    Luxembourg was annexed by France, becoming the département des forêts (department of forests), and the incorporation of the former Duchy as a département into France was formalised at the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797.[63] From the start of the occupation the new French officials in Luxembourg, who spoke only French, implemented many republican reforms, among them the principle of laicism, which led to an outcry in strongly Catholic Luxembourg. Additionally French was implemented as the only official language and Luxembourgish people were barred access to all civil services.[64] When the French Army introduced military duty for the local population, riots broke out which culminated in 1798 when Luxembourgish peasants started a rebellion.[64] Even though the French managed to rapidly suppress this revolt called Klëppelkrich, it had a profound effect on the historical memory of the country and its citizens.[65]

    However, many republican ideas of this era continue to have a lasting effect on Luxembourg; one of the many examples features the implementation of the Napoleonic Code Civil which was introduced in 1804 and is still valid today.[66]

    National awakening and independence (1815–1890)

    After the

    Grand-Duke of Luxembourg
    .

    After

    francophone western part of the country (but also the then Luxembourgish-speaking part of Arelerland) was transferred to the new state of Belgium, thereby giving Luxembourg its modern-day borders. The treaty of 1839 also established full independence of the remaining Germanic-speaking Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg.[69][70][71][72]

    In 1842 Luxembourg joined the German Customs Union (Zollverein).[73][74] This resulted in the opening of the German market, the development of Luxembourg's steel industry, and expansion of Luxembourg's railway network from 1855 to 1875.

    After the

    Franco-Prussian war in 1870, Luxembourg's neutrality was respected, and neither France nor Germany invaded the country.[76]

    As a result of the recurring disputes between the major European powers, the people of Luxembourg gradually developed a consciousness of independence and a national awakening took place in the 19th century.

    their own monarchy, thus reaffirming its full independence.[78]

    Two German occupations and interwar political crisis (1890–1945)

    Frontier with Alsace-Lorraine from 1871 to 1918
    See also: German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I and German occupation of Luxembourg during World War II

    In August 1914, during

    Imperial Germany violated Luxembourg's neutrality by invading it in order to defeat France.[79] Nevertheless, despite the German occupation, Luxembourg was allowed to maintain much of its independence and political mechanisms.[80] Unaware of the fact that Germany secretly planned to annex the Grand-Duchy in case of a German victory (the Septemberprogramm), the Luxembourgish government continued to pursue a policy of strict neutrality. However, the Luxembourgish population did not believe Germany had good intentions, fearing that it would annex Luxembourg. Around 1,000 Luxembourgers served in the French army.[81] Their sacrifices have been commemorated at the Gëlle Fra.[82]

    After the war, Grand-Duchess

    German army, communists in Luxembourg City and Esch-sur-Alzette tried to establish a soviet worker's republic similar to the ones emerging in Germany, but these attempts lasted only 2 days.[84][83]
    In November 1918, a motion in the Chamber of Deputies demanding the abolition of the monarchy was defeated narrowly by 21 votes to 19 (with 3 abstentions).[85]

    France questioned the Luxembourgish government's, and especially Marie-Adélaïde's, neutrality during the war, and calls for an annexation of Luxembourg to either France or Belgium grew louder in both countries.[86] In January 1919, a company of the

    Charlotte 5 days later.[87]
    The same year, in a popular referendum, 77.8% of the Luxembourgish population declared in favor of maintaining monarchy and rejected the establishment of a republic. During this time, Belgium pushed for an annexation of Luxembourg. However, all such claims were ultimately dismissed at the Paris Peace Conference, thus securing Luxembourg's independence.[88]

    In 1940, after the outbreak of

    resistance groups formed inside the occupied country.[90][91]

    With 2.45% of its prewar population killed, and a third of all buildings in Luxembourg being destroyed or heavily damaged (mainly due to the Battle of the Bulge), Luxembourg suffered the highest such loss in Western Europe, but its commitment to the Allied war effort was never questioned.[92] Around 1,000-2,500 of Luxembourg's Jews were murdered in the Holocaust.

    Integration into NATO and European Union (1945–)

    The Grand Duchy became a founding member of the United Nations in 1945. Luxembourg's neutral status under the constitution formally ended in 1948, and in April 1949 it also became a founding member of NATO.[93] During the Cold War, Luxembourg continued its involvements on the side of the Western Bloc. In the early fifties a small contingent of troops fought in the Korean War.[94] Luxembourg troops have also deployed to Afghanistan, to support

    ISAF.[95]

    In the 1950s, Luxembourg became one of the six founding countries of the

    European Atomic Energy Community. In 1993, the former two of these were incorporated into the European Union. With Robert Schuman (one of the founding fathers of the EU), Pierre Werner (considered the father of the Euro), Gaston Thorn, Jacques Santer and Jean-Claude Juncker (all former Presidents of the European Commission), Luxembourgish politicians contributed substantially to the EU's formation and establishment. In 1999, Luxembourg joined the eurozone. Thereafter, the country was elected non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council
    (2013–14).

    The

    steel industry exploiting the Red Lands' rich iron-ore grounds in the beginning of the 20th century drove Luxembourg's industrialization.[96] After the decline of the steel industry in the 1970s, the country focused on establishing itself as a global financial center and developed into the banking hub it is reputed to be. Since the beginning of the 21st century, its governments have focused on developing the country into a knowledge economy, with the founding of the University of Luxembourg and a national space program
    .

    Government and politics

    Main articles: Politics of Luxembourg and Law of Luxembourg
    Chamber of Deputies, in Luxembourg City

    Luxembourg is described as a "

    grand duke and the cabinet, which consists of several members with the titles of minister, minister delegate or secretary of state, who are headed by a Prime Minister.[98] The current Constitution of Luxembourg, the supreme law of Luxembourg, was originally adopted on 17 October 1868.[99] The Constitution was last updated on 1 July 2023.[100]

    The grand duke has the power to dissolve the legislature, in which case new elections must be held within three months. But since 1919, sovereignty has resided with the nation, exercised by the grand duke in accordance with the Constitution and the law.[101]

    Grand Duke of Luxembourg

    Legislative power is vested in the

    constituencies. A second body, the Council of State (Conseil d'État), composed of 21 ordinary citizens appointed by the grand duke, advises the Chamber of Deputies in the drafting of legislation.[102]

    Luxembourg has three lower tribunals (justices de paix; in

    Superior Court of Justice
    (Luxembourg), which includes the Court of Appeal and the Court of Cassation. There is also an Administrative Tribunal and an Administrative Court, as well as a Constitutional Court, all of which are located in the capital.

    Administrative divisions

    Main articles: Cantons of Luxembourg and Communes of Luxembourg
    Further information: Administrative divisions of Luxembourg

    Luxembourg is divided into 12

    city status; the city of Luxembourg is the largest.[104]

    Partitions and Cantons of Luxembourg
    Wiltz
    (12)

    Foreign relations

    Main article: Foreign relations of Luxembourg
    The Court of Justice of the European Union, seated in Luxembourg City

    Luxembourg has long been a prominent supporter of European political and

    Benelux Economic Union and was one of the founding members of the European Economic Community (now the European Union). It also participates in the Schengen Group (named after the Luxembourg village of Schengen where the agreements were signed).[24] At the same time, the majority of Luxembourgers have consistently believed that European unity makes sense only in the context of a dynamic transatlantic relationship, and thus have traditionally pursued a pro-NATO, pro-US foreign policy.[105]

    Luxembourg is considered a European capital, and is the site of the

    EEA Agreement.[107]

    Military

    Main article: Luxembourg Armed Forces
    Luxembourgish soldiers on parade during National Day, Grand Duke Day, 23 June

    The Luxembourgish army is mostly based in its casern, the Centre militaire Caserne Grand-Duc Jean on the Härebierg in Diekirch. The general staff is based in the capital, the État-Major.

    Minister for Defense, Yuriko Backes, oversees army operations. The professional head of the army is the Chief of Defense
    , who answers to the minister and holds the rank of general.

    Being landlocked, Luxembourg has no navy. Seventeen NATO

    A400M military cargo plane.[citation needed
    ]

    Luxembourg has participated in the

    Kurds and providing emergency supplies to Albania.[110]

    Geography

    Main article: Geography of Luxembourg

    Luxembourg is one of Europe's smallest countries, ranking

    168th in size of the 194 independent countries of the world; it is about 2,586 square kilometers (998 sq mi) in size, measuring 82 km (51 mi) long and 57 km (35 mi) wide. It lies between latitudes 49° and 51° N, and longitudes 5° and 7° E.[111]

    Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Dudelange, and Differdange
    .

    To the east, Luxembourg borders the German Bundesländer of Rhineland-Palatinate and Saarland, and to the south, it borders the French région of Grand Est (Lorraine). The Grand Duchy borders Belgium's Wallonia, in particular the Belgian provinces of Luxembourg and Liège, part of which comprises the German-speaking Community of Belgium, to the west and to the north, respectively.

    The northern third of the country is known as the Éislek or Oesling, and forms part of the Ardennes. It is dominated by hills and low mountains, including the Kneiff near Wilwerdange,[112] which is the highest point, at 560 meters (1,840 ft). Other mountains are the Buurgplaatz at 559 meters (1,834 ft) near Huldange and the Napoléonsgaard at 554 meters (1,818 ft) near Rambrouch. The region is sparsely populated, with only one town (Wiltz) with a population of more than five thousand people.

    The southern two-thirds of the country is called the

    Moselle valley is the lowest-lying region, running along the southeastern border. The Red Lands
    , in the far south and southwest, are Luxembourg's industrial heartland and home to many of Luxembourg's largest towns.

    The border between Luxembourg and Germany is formed by three rivers: the

    Wiltz. The valleys
    of the mid-Sauer and Attert form the border between the Gutland and the Éislek.

    Environment

    According to the 2012

    GHG emissions by 55% in 10 years and reach zero emissions by 2050. Luxembourg wants to increase its organic farming fivefold.[116] It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 1.12/10, ranking it 164th globally out of 172 countries.[117]

    Climate

    Luxembourg has an oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb), marked by high precipitation, particularly in late summer. The summers are warm and winters cool.[118]

    Economy

    Main article: Economy of Luxembourg
    Luxembourg is part of the Schengen Area, the EU single market, and the eurozone (dark blue).

    Luxembourg's stable and high-income

    quality of life index.[124] It ranked 21st in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, down from 18th in 2020.[125]

    The industrial sector, dominated by steel until the 1960s, has since diversified to include chemicals, rubber, and other products. During recent decades, growth in the financial sector has more than compensated for the decline in

    3D scanner developer/manufacturer Artec 3D.[citation needed
    ]

    In April 2009, concern about Luxembourg's banking secrecy laws, as well as its reputation as a

    Kim Jong-Il's $4 billion in secret accounts was in Luxembourg banks.[128] Amazon.co.uk also benefits from Luxembourg tax loopholes by channeling substantial U.K. revenues, as reported by The Guardian in April 2012.[129] Luxembourg ranked third on the Tax Justice Network's 2011 Financial Secrecy Index of the world's major tax havens, scoring only slightly behind the Cayman Islands.[130] In 2013, Luxembourg was ranked the 2nd safest tax haven in the world, behind Switzerland
    .

    In early November 2014, just days after becoming head of the

    Luxembourg Leaks—that Luxembourg had turned into a major European center of corporate tax avoidance under his premiership.[131]

    Agriculture employed about 2.1% of Luxembourg's active population in 2010, when there were 2200 agricultural holdings with an average area per holding of 60 hectares.[132]

    Luxembourg has especially close trade and financial ties to Belgium and the Netherlands (see Benelux), and as a member of the EU it enjoys the advantages of the open European market.[133]

    With $171 billion in May 2015, the country ranked 11th in the world in holdings of

    U.S. Treasury securities.[134] However, securities owned by non-Luxembourg residents, but held in custodial accounts in Luxembourg, are included in this figure.[135]

    As of 2019[update], Luxembourg's public debt totaled $15,687,000,000, or $25,554 per capita. The debt to GDP was 22.10%.[136]

    The Luxembourg labor market represents 445,000 jobs occupied by 120,000 Luxembourgers, 120,000 foreign residents and 205,000 cross-border commuters. The latter pay their taxes in Luxembourg, but their education and social rights are the responsibility of their country of residence. The same applies to pensioners. Luxembourg's government has never shared its tax revenues with the local authorities on the French border. This system is seen as one of the keys to Luxembourg's economic growth, but at the expense of the border countries.[137]

    Transport

    Main article: Transport in Luxembourg
    See also: History of rail transport in Luxembourg
    Luxembourg's international airline Luxair is based at Luxembourg Airport, the country's only international airport.

    Luxembourg has road, rail and air transport facilities and services. The road network has been significantly modernized in recent years with 165 km (103 mi)

    light-rail lines in adjacent areas within the next few years.[140]

    There are 681 cars per 1000 persons in Luxembourg—higher than most of other states, and surpassed by the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Iceland, and other small states like Principality of Monaco, San Marino, Liechtenstein, the British overseas territory of Gibraltar, and Brunei.[141]

    On 29 February 2020, Luxembourg became the first country to introduce no-charge public transportation, which will be almost completely funded by public expenditure.[142]

    Communications

    Main article: Telecommunications in Luxembourg

    The telecommunications industry in Luxembourg is liberalized and the electronic communications networks are significantly developed. Competition between the different operators is guaranteed by the legislative framework Paquet Telecom[143] of the Government of 2011 which transposes the European Telecom Directives into Luxembourgish law. This encourages the investment in networks and services. The regulator ILR – Institut Luxembourgeois de Régulation[144] ensures the compliance to these legal rules.[citation needed]

    Luxembourg has modern and widely deployed optical fiber and cable networks throughout the country. In 2010, the Luxembourg Government launched its National strategy for very high-speed networks with the aim to become a global leader in terms of very high-speed broadband by achieving full 1 Gbit/s coverage of the country by 2020.

    NGA coverage of 75%.[146] In April 2013 Luxembourg featured the 6th highest download speed worldwide and the 2nd highest in Europe: 32,46 Mbit/s.[147] The country's location in Central Europe, stable economy and low taxes favour the telecommunication industry.[148][149][150]

    It ranks 2nd in the world in the development of the Information and Communication Technologies in the ITU ICT Development Index and 8th in the Global Broadband Quality Study 2009 by the University of Oxford and the University of Oviedo.[151][152][153][154]

    Signs in front of the Centre Drosbach on the Cloche d'or, in the city of Luxembourg

    Luxembourg is connected to all major European Internet Exchanges (AMS-IX Amsterdam,

    financial technology (FinTech) hubs in Europe, with the Luxembourg government supporting initiatives like the Luxembourg House of Financial Technology.[167]

    Some 20 data centers[168][169][170] are operating in Luxembourg. Six data centers are Tier IV Design certified: three of ebrc,[171] two of LuxConnect[172][173] and one of European Data Hub.[174] In a survey on nine international data centers carried out in December 2012 and January 2013 and measuring availability (up-time) and performance (delay by which the data from the requested website was received), the top three positions were held by Luxembourg data centers.[175][176]

    Demographics

    Main article: Demographics of Luxembourg

    Largest towns

     
     
    Largest cities or towns in Luxembourg
    2023
    Rank
    Name
    		 Canton Pop.
    Luxembourg
    Luxembourg
    Esch-sur-Alzette
    Esch-sur-Alzette     		1 Luxembourg
    Luxembourg Canton
    		 132,780 Differdange
    Differdange
    Dudelange
    Dudelange
    2 Esch-sur-Alzette
    Esch-sur-Alzette Canton
    		 36,625
    3 Differdange
    Esch-sur-Alzette Canton
    		 29,536
    4 Dudelange
    Esch-sur-Alzette Canton
    		 21,952
    5 Pétange
    Esch-sur-Alzette Canton
    		 20,563
    6 Sanem
    Esch-sur-Alzette Canton
    		 18,333
    7 Hesperange
    Luxembourg Canton
    		 16,433
    8 Bettembourg
    Esch-sur-Alzette Canton
    		 11,422
    9 Schifflange
    Esch-sur-Alzette Canton
    		 11,363
    10 Käerjeng
    Capellen Canton
    		 11,015
    Population density in Luxembourg by communes. The main urban area, Luxembourg City, is located in the south-center of the country

    Ethnicity

    Largest groups of immigrants (2023):[177]
    1. Portugal Portugal (92,101)
    2. France France (49,104)
    3. Italy Italy (24,676)
    4. Belgium Belgium (19,205)
    5. Germany Germany (12,678)
    6. Spain Spain (9,068)
    7. Romania Romania (6,625)
    8. Ukraine Ukraine (5,238)
    9. Poland Poland (5,130)
    10. India India (4,657)

    The people of Luxembourg are called

    Portuguese nationality.[179] In 2013, there were 537,039 permanent residents, 44.5% of which were of foreign background or foreign nationals; the largest foreign ethnic groups were the Portuguese, comprising 16.4% of the total population, followed by the French (6.6%), Italians (3.4%), Belgians (3.3%) and Germans (2.3%). Another 6.4% were of other EU background, while the remaining 6.1% were of other non-EU, but largely other European, background.[180]

    Since the beginning of the

    Yugoslav wars, Luxembourg has seen many immigrants from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia. Annually, over 10,000 new immigrants arrive in Luxembourg, mostly from the EU states, as well as Eastern Europe. In 2000 there were 162,000 immigrants in Luxembourg, accounting for 37% of the total population. There were an estimated 5,000 illegal immigrants in Luxembourg in 1999.[181]

    Language

    Main articles:
    Luxembourg literature

    Luxembourg does not have any "official" languages per se. As determined by the 1984 Language Regimen Act (French: Loi sur le régime des langues),

    Moselle Franconian subgroup of the main West Central German dialect group, which are largely mutually intelligible across the border, but Luxembourgish also has more than 5,000 words of French origin.[182][183] Knowledge of Luxembourgish is a criterion for naturalisation.[184]

    In addition to Luxembourgish,

    administrative languages of Luxembourg.[13] Per article 4 of the law promulgated in 1984, if a citizen asks a question in Luxembourgish, German or French, the administration must reply, as far as possible, in the language in which the question was asked.[13]

    Advertisement from a bank in Luxembourg with translations in (clockwise from top left) Luxembourgish, German, English, French, and Portuguese

    Luxembourg is largely multilingual: as of 2012, 52% of citizens claimed Luxembourgish as their native language, 16.4% Portuguese, 16% French, 2% German and 13.6% different languages (mostly English, Italian or Spanish).[185][186] Even though French was the mother tongue of only 16% of residents in Luxembourg (placing 3rd), 98% of its citizens were able to speak it to a high level.[187] The vast majority of Luxembourg residents are able to speak it as a second or third language.[188] As of 2018, much of the population was able to speak multiple other languages: 80% of citizens reported being able to hold a conversation in English, 78% in German and 77% in Luxembourgish, claiming these languages as their respective second, third or fourth language.[187]

    Each of the three official languages is used as a primary language in certain spheres of everyday life, without being exclusive. Luxembourgish is the language that Luxembourgers generally use to speak and write to each other, and there has been a recent[when?] increase in the production of novels and movies in the language.[citation needed] At the same time, the numerous expatriate workers (approximately 44% of the population) generally do not use it to speak to each other.[189]

    Most official business and written communication is carried out in French, which is also the language mostly used for public communication, with written official statements, advertising displays and road signs generally in French. Due to the historical influence of the Napoleonic Code on the legal system of the Grand Duchy, French is also the sole language of the legislation and generally the preferred language of the government, administration and justice. Parliamentary debates are mostly conducted in Luxembourgish, whereas written government communications and official documents (e.g. administrative or judicial decisions, passports, etc.) are drafted mostly in French and sometimes additionally in German.[citation needed]

    Although professional life is largely multilingual, French is described by private sector business leaders as the main working language of their companies (56%), followed by Luxembourgish (20%), English (18%), and German (6%).[190]

    German is very often used in much of the media along with French and is considered by most Luxembourgers their second language. This is mostly due to the high similarity of German to Luxembourgish but also because it is the first language taught to children in primary school (language of literacy acquisition).[191]

    Due to the large community of Portuguese origin, the Portuguese language is fairly prevalent in Luxembourg, though it remains limited to the relationships inside this community. Portuguese has no official status, but the administration sometimes makes certain informative documents available in Portuguese.[citation needed]

    Even though Luxembourg is largely multilingual today, some people claim that Luxembourg is subject of intense francization and that Luxembourgish and German are in danger of disappearing in the country, making Luxembourg either a unilingual Francophone country, or at best a bilingual French- and English-speaking country sometime in the far future.[192][193][188]

    See also: Luxembourgish § Endangered status claims

    Religion

    Main article: Religion in Luxembourg
    Notre-Dame Cathedral, Luxembourg City

    Luxembourg is a

    Mennonitism, and Islam.[194]

    Since 1980, it has been illegal for the government to collect statistics on religious beliefs or practices.[195] A 2000 estimate by the CIA Factbook is that 87% of Luxembourgers are Catholic, including the grand ducal family, with the remaining 13% being Protestants, Orthodox Christians, Jews, Muslims, and those of other or no religion.[196] According to a 2010 Pew Research Center study, 70.4% are Christian, 2.3% Muslim, 26.8% unaffiliated, and 0.5% other religions.[197]

    According to a 2005 Eurobarometer poll,[198] 44% of Luxembourg citizens responded that "they believe there is a God", whereas 28% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force", and 22% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force".

    Education

    The University of Luxembourg is the only university based in the country.
    See also: List of secondary schools in Luxembourg

    Luxembourg's education system is trilingual: the first years of primary school are in Luxembourgish, before changing to German; while in secondary school, the language of instruction changes to French.[199] Proficiency in all three languages is required for graduation from secondary school, but half the students leave school without a certified qualification, with the children of immigrants being particularly disadvantaged.[200] In addition to the three national languages, English is taught in compulsory schooling and much of the population of Luxembourg can speak English. The past two decades have highlighted the growing importance of English in several sectors, in particular the financial sector. Portuguese, the language of the largest immigrant community, is also spoken by large segments of the population, but by relatively few from outside the Portuguese-speaking community.[201]

    The University of Luxembourg is the only university based in Luxembourg. In 2014, Luxembourg School of Business, a graduate business school, was created through private initiative and received the accreditation from the Ministry of Higher Education and Research of Luxembourg in 2017.[202][203] Two American universities maintain satellite campuses in the country: Miami University (Dolibois European Center) and Sacred Heart University (Luxembourg Campus).[204]

    Health

    Main articles: Health in Luxembourg and Healthcare in Luxembourg

    According to data from the World Health Organization, healthcare spending on behalf of the government of Luxembourg topped $4.1 Billion, amounting to about $8,182 for each citizen in the nation.[205][206] The nation of Luxembourg collectively spent nearly 7% of its Gross Domestic Product on health, placing it among the highest spending countries on health services and related programs in 2010 among other well-off nations in Europe with high average income among its population.[207]

    Culture

    Main articles: Culture of Luxembourg and National symbols of Luxembourg
    Edward Steichen, photographer and painter

    Luxembourg has been heavily influenced by the culture of its neighbors. It retains a number of folk traditions, having been for much of its history a profoundly rural country. There are several notable museums, located mostly in the capital. These include the

    World Heritage List, on account of the historical importance of its fortifications.[208][unreliable source?
    ]

    The country has produced some internationally known artists, including the painters Théo Kerg, Joseph Kutter and Michel Majerus, and photographer Edward Steichen, whose The Family of Man exhibition has been placed on UNESCO's Memory of the World register, and is now permanently housed in Clervaux. Editor and author Hugo Gernsback, whose publications crystallized the concept of science fiction, was born in Luxembourg City. Movie star Loretta Young was of Luxembourgish descent.[209]

    Luxembourg was a founding participant of the Eurovision Song Contest, and participated every year between 1956 and before it was relegated after the 1993 competition, with the exception of 1959. Although Luxembourg was free to participate again in 1995, it chose not to return to the competition before 2024. It has won the competition a total of five times, 1961, 1965, 1972, 1973 and 1983 and hosted the contest in 1962, 1966, 1973, and 1984. Only nine of its 38 entries before 2024, and none of its five winning entries, were performed by Luxembourgish artists.[210] On its 2024 return, this was, however, with a particular emphasis on promoting music and artists from Luxembourg.[211]

    Luxembourg was the first city to be named European Capital of Culture twice. The first time was in 1995. In 2007, the European Capital of Culture was to be a cross-border area consisting of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the Rheinland-Pfalz and Saarland in Germany, the Walloon Region and the German-speaking part of Belgium, and the Lorraine area in France.[212] The event was an attempt to promote mobility and the exchange of ideas, crossing borders physically, psychologically, artistically and emotionally.[citation needed]

    Luxembourg was represented at the World Expo 2010 in Shanghai, China, from 1 May to 31 October 2010 with its own pavilion.[213][214] The pavilion, designed as a forest and fortress, was based on the transliteration of the word Luxembourg into Chinese, "Lúsēnbǎo", which when directly translated, means "forest and fortress". It represented Luxembourg as the "Green Heart in Europe".[215]

    Sports

    Main article: Sport in Luxembourg
    Further information: Luxembourgish Sportspeople of the Year
    Charly Gaul won three Grand Tours in his cycling career.

    Unlike most countries in Europe, sports in Luxembourg are not concentrated upon a particular

    handball, gymnastics, and volleyball, including the final of the 2007 Women's European Volleyball Championship.[218]

    Cuisine

    Main article: Cuisine of Luxembourg
    Judd mat Gaardebounen, served with boiled potatoes and Diekirch beer

    Luxembourg cuisine reflects its position on the border between the Latin and Germanic worlds, being heavily influenced by the cuisines of neighboring France and Germany. More recently,[when?] it has been enriched by its many Italian and Portuguese immigrants.[citation needed]

    Most native Luxembourg dishes, consumed as the traditional daily fare, share roots in the country's folk dishes, the same as in neighboring Germany.[219]

    Luxembourg sells the most alcohol in Europe per capita.[220] However, the large proportion of alcohol purchased by customers from neighboring countries contributes to the statistically high level of alcohol sales per capita; this level of alcohol sales is thus not representative of the actual alcohol consumption of the Luxembourg population.[221]

    Luxembourg has the second highest number of Michelin-starred restaurants per capita with Japan ranked at number one and Switzerland following Luxembourg at number three.[222]

    Media

    The main languages of media in Luxembourg are French and German. The newspaper with the largest circulation is the German-language daily Luxemburger Wort.[223] Because of the strong multilingualism in Luxembourg, newspapers often alternate articles in French and articles in German, without translation. In addition, there are both English and Portuguese radio and national print publications, but accurate audience figures are difficult to gauge since the national media survey by ILRES is conducted in French.[224]

    Luxembourg is known in Europe for its radio and television stations (

    Radio Luxembourg and RTL Group). It is also the uplink home of SES, carrier of major European satellite services for Germany and Britain.[225]

    Due to a 1988 law that established a special tax scheme for audiovisual investment, the film and co-production in Luxembourg has grown steadily.[226] There are some 30 registered production companies in Luxembourg.[227][228]

    Luxembourg won an

    Animated Short Films category with Mr Hublot.[229]

    Notable Luxembourgers

    Main article: List of Luxembourgers

    See also

    References

    Informational notes

    1. ^ European Union since 1993.
    2. ^ Luxembourgish: Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg [ˈɡʀəʊ̯sˌhɛχtsoːχtum ˈlətsəbuəɕ]; French: Grand-Duché de Luxembourg [ɡʁɑ̃ dyʃe də lyksɑ̃buʁ] ⓘ; German: Großherzogtum Luxemburg [ˈɡʁoːsˌhɛʁtsoːktuːm ˈlʊksm̩bʊʁk] ⓘ.

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    Works cited

    Further reading

    External links

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