Rosa Luxemburg
Rosa Luxemburg | |
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Born | Rozalia Luksenburg 5 March 1871 Zamość, Congress Poland, Russian Empire |
Died | 15 January 1919 | (aged 47)
Cause of death | Execution by shooting |
Alma mater | University of Zurich (Dr. jur., 1897) |
Occupations |
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Political party |
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Spouse |
Gustav Lübeck
(m. 1897, divorced) |
Partners | |
Parent(s) | Edward Eliasz Luksenburg Lina Lewensztejn |
Relatives | de:Nathan Löwenstein von Opoka (cousin) |
Signature | |
Part of a series about |
Imperialism studies |
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Part of a series on |
Marxism |
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Rosa Luxemburg (
Born and raised in a
After the SPD supported German involvement in
Due to her pointed criticism of both the
Life
Poland
Ancestry
Little is known about Rozalia's great-grandparents, Elisza and Szayndla, but according to historical evidence it is likely they lived in
Abraham's son Edward was Róża's father.
Origins
Róża Luksemburg, actual birth name Rozalia Luksenburg, was born on 5 March 1871 at 45 Ogrodowa Street (now 7a Kościuszko Street)
Rory Castle writes: "From her grandfather and father [Rosa] inherited the belief that she was a Pole first and a Jew second, her passionate opposition to Tsarism and her emotional connection to Polish language and culture. Although her parents were religious, they did not consider themselves to be Jewish by nationality, rather 'Poles of the Mosaic persuasion'".[9] He also points out that more recent research into the Luxemburg family and her early years show that "Rosa Luxemburg gained a lot more from her family than has previously been understood by her biographers. Not only in terms of her education, financial support and assistance during her frequent incarcerations, but also in terms of her identity and politics. Her family was a closely knitted support network, even when its members were spread out across Europe. This solid foundation, which supported and encouraged her at every step, gave Luxemburg the intellectual and personal confidence to go out and attempt to change the world".[9] It is especially from Luxemburg's private correspondence that it can be seen she in fact remained very close with her family throughout the years, despite being separated by borders and spread out across countries.[9]
Education and activism
In 1884, she enrolled at an all-girls' gymnasium (secondary school) in Warsaw, which she attended until 1887.[17] The Second Women's Gymnasium was a school that only rarely accepted Polish applicants and acceptance of Jewish children was even more exceptional. The children were only permitted to speak Russian.[18] At this school, Róża attended in secret circles studying the works of Polish poets and writers; officially this was forbidden due to the policy of Russification against Poles that was pursued in the Russian Empire at the time.[19] From 1886, Luxemburg belonged to the illegal Polish left-wing Proletariat Party (founded in 1882, anticipating the Russian parties by twenty years). She began political activities by organising a general strike; as a result, four of the Proletariat Party leaders were put to death and the party was disbanded, though the remaining members, including Luxemburg, kept meeting in secret. In 1887, she passed her matura (secondary school examinations).
Róża became wanted by the tsarist police due to her activity in Proletariat; she hid in the countryside, working as private tutor at a dworek.[20] In order to escape detention, she fled to Switzerland through the "green border" in 1889.[21] She attended the University of Zurich (as did the socialists Anatoly Lunacharsky and Leo Jogiches), where she studied philosophy, history, politics, economics, zoology[22][23] and mathematics.[24] She specialised in Staatswissenschaft (political science), economic and stock exchange crises, and the Middle Ages. Her doctoral dissertation "The Industrial Development of Poland" (Die Industrielle Entwicklung Polens) was officially presented in the spring of 1897 at the University of Zurich which awarded her a Doctor of Law degree. Her dissertation was published by Duncker and Humblot in Leipzig in 1898. An oddity in Zurich, she was one of the first women in the world with a doctorate in political economy[21] and the first Polish woman to achieve this.[7]
In 1893, with Leo Jogiches and Julian Marchlewski (alias Julius Karski), Luxemburg founded the newspaper Sprawa Robotnicza (The Workers' Cause) which opposed the nationalist policies of the Polish Socialist Party. Luxemburg believed that an independent Poland could arise and exist only through socialist revolutions in Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia. She maintained that the struggle should be against capitalism, not just for Polish independence. Her position of denying a national right of self-determination provoked a philosophic disagreement with Vladimir Lenin. She and Leo Jogiches co-founded the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (SDKPiL) party, after merging Congress Poland's and Lithuania's social democratic organisations. Despite living in Germany for most of her adult life, Luxemburg was the principal theoretician of the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland (SDKP, later the SDKPiL) and led the party in a partnership with Jogiches, its principal organiser.[21] She remained sentimental towards Polish culture, her favourite poet was Adam Mickiewicz, and she vehemently opposed the Germanisation of Poles in the Prussian Partition; in 1900 she published a brochure against this in Poznań.[15] Earlier, in 1893, she also wrote against the Russification of Poles by the Russian Empire's absolutist government.[16]
The 1905 revolution
After the
They held her prisoner first at the
Germany
Luxemburg wanted to move to Germany to be at the centre of the party struggle, but she had no way of obtaining permission to remain there indefinitely. Thus, in April 1897 she married the son of an old friend, Gustav Lübeck, in order to gain German citizenship. They never lived together, and they formally divorced five years later.[28] She returned briefly to Paris, then moved permanently to Berlin to support Eduard Bernstein's constitutional reform movement. Luxemburg disliked the middle-class culture of Berlin, which she considered stifling to revolution. She further disliked Prussian men and resented what she saw as the grip of urban capitalism on social democracy.[29] In the Social Democratic Party of Germany's women's section, she met Clara Zetkin, whom she made a lifelong friend. Between 1907 and his conscription in 1915, she was involved in a love affair with Clara's younger son, Kostja Zetkin, to which approximately 600 surviving letters (now mostly published) bear testimony.[30][31][32] Luxemburg was a member of the uncompromising left wing of the SPD. Their clear position was that the objectives of liberation for the industrial working class and all minorities could be achieved by revolution only.
As Irene Gammel writes in a review of the English translation of the book in The Globe and Mail: "The three decades covered by the 230 letters in this collection provide the context for her major contributions as a political activist, socialist theorist and writer". Her reputation was tarnished by Joseph Stalin's cynicism in Questions Concerning the History of Bolshevism. In his rewriting of Russian events, he placed the blame for the theory of permanent revolution on Luxemburg's shoulders, with faint praise for her attacks on Karl Kautsky which she commenced in 1910.[33]
According to Gammel, "In her controversial tome of 1913, The Accumulation of Capital, as well as through her work as a co-founder of the radical Spartacus League, Luxemburg helped to shape Germany's young democracy by advancing an international, rather than a nationalist, outlook. This farsightedness partly explains her remarkable popularity as a socialist icon and its continued resonance in movies, novels and memorials dedicated to her life and oeuvre". Gammel also notes that for Luxemburg "the revolution was a way of life" and yet that the letters also challenge the stereotype of "Red Rosa" as a ruthless fighter.[34] However, The Accumulation of Capital sparked angry accusations from the Communist Party of Germany. In 1923, Ruth Fischer and Arkadi Maslow denounced the work as "errors", a derivative work of economic miscalculation known as "spontaneity".[35]
Luxemburg continued to identify as Polish and disliked living in Germany, which she saw as a political necessity, making various negative comments about
Before World War I
When Luxemburg moved to Germany in May 1898, she settled in Berlin. She was active there in the left wing of the SPD in which she sharply defined the border between the views of her faction and the revisionism theory of Eduard Bernstein. She attacked him in her brochure Social Reform or Revolution?, released in September 1898. Luxemburg's rhetorical skill made her a leading spokesperson in denouncing the SPD's reformist parliamentary course. She argued that the critical difference between capital and labour could only be countered if the proletariat assumed power and effected revolutionary changes in methods of production. She wanted the revisionists ousted from the SPD. That did not occur, but Kautsky's leadership retained a Marxist influence on its programme.[37]
From 1900, Luxemburg published analyses of contemporary European socio-economic problems in newspapers. Foreseeing war, she vigorously attacked what she saw as German militarism and imperialism.[38] Luxemburg wanted a general strike to rouse the workers to solidarity and prevent the coming war. However, the SPD leaders refused and she broke with Kautsky in 1910. Between 1904 and 1906, she was imprisoned for her political activities on three occasions in Barnimstrasse women's prison.[39] In 1907, she went to the Russian Social Democrats' Fifth Party Day in London, where she met Lenin. At the socialist Second International Congress in Stuttgart, her resolution demanding that all European workers' parties should unite in attempting to stop the war was accepted.[38]
Luxemburg taught Marxism and economics at the SPD's Berlin training centre. Her former student
In response, Luxemburg organised anti-war demonstrations in Frankfurt, calling for conscientious objection to military conscription and the refusal of soldiers to follow orders. On that account, she was imprisoned for a year for "inciting to disobedience against the authorities' law and order".
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Rosa Luxemburg (centre) among attendees of the International Socialist Congress, Amsterdam 1904
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Rosa Luxemburg (centre) among leaders at the International Socialist Congress, Amsterdam 1904
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Rosa Luxemburg and Luise Kautsky in 1909
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Rosa Luxemburg and Kostja Zetkin in 1909
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Portrait of Rosa Luxemburg in 1910
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Clara Zetkin and Rosa Luxemburg in 1910
During the war
In August 1914, Luxemburg, along with
Luxemburg continued to write and friends secretly smuggled out and illegally published her articles. Among them was
In 1917, the Spartacus League was affiliated with the Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD), founded by Hugo Haase and made up of anti-war former SPD members.
According to Russian historian Edvard Radzinsky, "The Bolshevik envoy in Berlin began secretly purchasing arms for the German revolutionaries. A little while ago the Germans had been assisting revolution in Russia. Now Lenin was reciprocating. The Bolshevik embassy became the headquarters of the German revolution."[43]
In November 1918, the USPD and the SPD assumed power in the newly created Weimar Republic, which many subsequent historians have critically termed, "a
German Revolution of 1918–1919
Luxemburg was freed from prison in Breslau on 8 November 1918, three days before the armistice of 11 November 1918. One day later, Karl Liebknecht, who had also been freed from prison, proclaimed the Free Socialist Republic (Freie Sozialistische Republik) in Berlin.[45] He and Luxemburg reorganised the Spartacus League and founded The Red Flag (Die Rote Fahne) newspaper, demanding amnesty for all political prisoners and the abolition of capital punishment in the essay Against Capital Punishment.[13] On 14 December 1918, they published the new programme of the Spartacus League.
Following the arrival of Soviet emissary and
This same conference, however, ultimately led to the foundation on 1 January 1919 of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) under the leadership of Liebknecht and Luxemburg. Luxemburg supported the new KPD's participation in the Weimar National Assembly that founded the Weimar Republic, but she was out-voted and the KPD boycotted the elections.[47]
Leading up to the January 1919 struggle for power with the SPD, the improvised Spartacist Uprising began in Berlin. Luxemburg spoke at the founding conference of the German Communist Party on 31 December 1918:
The progress of large-scale capitalist development during seventy years has brought us so far that today we can seriously set about destroying capitalism once and for all. No, still more; today we are not only in a position to perform this task, its performance is not only a duty toward the proletariat, but its solution offers the only means of saving human society from destruction.[48]
Like Liebknecht, Luxemburg supported the violent putsch attempt.[49] In a complete reversal of her previous demands for "unrestricted freedom of the press",[50] The Red Flag called for the KPD to violently occupy the editorial offices of the anti-Spartacist press and later, all other positions of power.[49] On 8 January, Luxemburg's Red Flag printed a public statement by her, in which she called for revolutionary violence and no negotiations with the revolution's "mortal enemies", the SPD-led Republican Government of Friedrich Ebert and Philipp Scheidemann.[51]
Execution and aftermath
In response to the uprising, Luxemburg's former student, German Chancellor and SPD leader Ebert ordered the Freikorps to suppress the Soviet-backed attempt at revolution, which was successfully crushed by 11 January 1919.[52] Meanwhile, Luxemburg's Red Flag falsely claimed that the rebellion was spreading across Germany.[53]
Luxemburg and Liebknecht were taken prisoner in Berlin on 15 January 1919 by the
The symbolism was intentional. The enemies of the Spartacists looked on them as being less than human. Dogs were being given a dog's death. The Spartacists leaders met their ends with courage and dignity. Of their leaders, only Thalheimer and Levi survived, and it was Levi who delivered the funeral oration for Luxemburg on 2 February. Radek went into hiding.[58]
Luxemburg's last known words written on the evening of her execution were about her belief in the masses and what she saw as the inevitability of a triumphant revolution:[59]
The contradiction between the powerful, decisive, aggressive offensive of the Berlin masses on the one hand and the indecisive, half-hearted vacillation of the Berlin leadership on the other is the mark of this latest episode. The leadership failed. But a new leadership can and must be created by the masses and from the masses. The masses are the crucial factor. They are the rock on which the ultimate victory of the revolution will be built. The masses were up to the challenge, and out of this "defeat" they have forged a link in the chain of historic defeats, which is the pride and strength of international socialism. That is why future victories will spring from this "defeat". "Order prevails in Berlin!" You foolish lackeys! Your "order" is built on sand. Tomorrow the revolution will "rise up again, clashing its weapons," and to your horror it will proclaim with trumpets blazing: I was, I am, I shall be!
The executions of Luxemburg and Liebknecht were the beginning of a new wave of
The last part of the German Revolution saw many instances of armed violence and strike action throughout Germany. Significant strikes occurred in Berlin, the Bremen Soviet Republic, Saxony, Saxe-Gotha, Hamburg, the Rhinelands and the Ruhr region. Last to strike was the Bavarian Soviet Republic which was suppressed on 2 May 1919.
More than four months after the murders of Luxemburg and Liebknecht, on 1 June 1919, Luxemburg's corpse was found and identified after an autopsy at the Charité hospital in Berlin.[54]
According to Russian historian Edvard Radzinsky, Soviet Premier Lenin retaliated for Liebknecht and Luxemburg's murder by issuing orders to
Private Runge was sentenced to two years' imprisonment for attempted manslaughter and Lieutenant Vogel to two years and four months for failing to report a corpse. However, Vogel escaped after a brief period in custody, with the help of Wilhelm Canaris. Captain Pabst and Lieutenant Souchon were never prosecuted.[62] The Nazis later compensated Private Runge for having been jailed, but he died in Berlin in NKVD custody after the end of World War II.[63] The Nazis also later merged the Garde-Kavallerie-Schützendivision into the SA. In an interview with German news magazine Der Spiegel in 1962 and again in his memoirs, Captain Pabst alleged that Defence Minister Noske and Weimar Republic Chancellor Ebert had both covertly approved of his actions, but his account has not been confirmed, nor has his case been examined by the Parliament or Courts of Germany. In 1993, Gietinger's research on his access to the previously restricted papers of Pabst, held at the Federal Military Archives, found him as central to the planning of the murder of Luxemburg and the shielding of those who had acted under his orders from subsequent criminal prosecution.[64]
Reactions
Shortly after Luxemburg's death, her fame was alluded to by Grigory Zinoviev at the Petrograd Soviet on 18 January 1919, supporting her assessment of Bolshevism.[60]
Lenin posthumously praised Luxemburg as an "eagle" of the working class, and stated that her work would serve as an example to other socialist revolutionaries.[65]
Russian revolutionary Leon Trotsky also publicly mourned Luxemburg's and Liebknecht's death.[66] In later years, Trotsky frequently defended Luxemburg, claiming that Joseph Stalin had vilified her.[13] In the article "Hands Off Rosa Luxemburg!", Trotsky criticised Stalin for this despite what Trotsky perceived as Luxemburg's theoretical errors, writing: "Yes, Stalin has sufficient cause to hate Rosa Luxemburg. But all the more imperious therefore becomes our duty to shield Rosa's memory from Stalin's calumny that has been caught by the hired functionaries of both hemispheres, and to pass on this truly beautiful, heroic, and tragic image to the young generations of the proletariat in all its grandeur and inspirational force".[67]
Annual demonstration
In the city of Berlin a Liebknecht-Luxemburg Demonstration, shortened to LL-Demo, is organised annually in the month of January around the date of their death. This demonstration takes place on the second weekend of the month in Berlin-Friedrichshain, starting near the Frankfurter Tor and then to their graves in the central cemetery Friedrichsfelde, also known as the Gedenkstätte der Sozialisten (Socialist Memorial).[68] In East Germany, the event was widely considered to be a mere show for Socialist Unity Party of Germany politicians and celebrities, which was broadcast live on state television.[69]
During the
In January 2019, the German left-wing parties commemorated the 100th anniversary of the summary execution of Luxemburg and Liebknecht.[71][72][73]
Thought
Revolutionary Socialist Democracy and Criticism of the October Revolution
Luxemburg initially professed a commitment to democracy and the necessity of revolution. Luxemburg's idea of democracy which Stanley Aronowitz calls "generalized democracy in an unarticulated form" represents Luxemburg's greatest break with "mainstream communism" since it effectively diminishes the role of the communist party, but it, similar to the views of Karl Marx, states that the working class must "emancipate" themselves without a higher authority.[citation needed]
Early on, Luxemburg attacked the totalitarian tendencies present in the Russian Revolution claiming that without democratic institutions and protections, "life dies out in every public institution" and further claimed that such a lack of freedoms would lead to a "dictatorship of a handful of politicians".[50]
Freedom only for the supporters of the government, only for the members of one party – however numerous they may be – is no freedom at all. Freedom is always and exclusively freedom for the one who thinks differently. Not because of any fanatical concept of "justice" but because all that is instructive, wholesome and purifying in political freedom depends on this essential characteristic, and its effectiveness vanishes when "freedom" becomes a special privilege. [...] But socialist democracy is not something which begins only in the promised land after the foundations of socialist economy are created; it does not come as some sort of Christmas present for the worthy people who, in the interim, have loyally supported a handful of socialist dictators. Socialist democracy begins simultaneously with the beginnings of the destruction of class rule and of the construction of socialism.
In an article published just before the October Revolution, Luxemburg characterised the Russian February Revolution of 1917 as a "revolution of the proletariat" and said that the "liberal bourgeoisie" were pushed to movement by the display of "proletarian power". The task of the Russian proletariat, she explained, was now to end the "imperialist" world war in addition to struggling against the "imperialist bourgeoisie". The world war made Russia ripe for a socialist revolution. Therefore, "the German proletariat are also [...] posed a question of honour, and a very fateful question".[74] However, in several works, including an essay written from jail and published posthumously by her last companion Paul Levi (publication of which precipitated his expulsion from the Third International), titled The Russian Revolution,[75] Luxemburg sharply criticised some Bolshevik policies such as their suppression of the Constituent Assembly in January 1918 following the October Revolution and their policy of supporting the purported right of all national peoples to self-determination. According to Luxemburg, the Bolsheviks' strategic mistakes created tremendous dangers for the Revolution such as its bureaucratisation. She wrote that the shortcomings of the October Revolution reflected a period of "complete failure of the international proletariat".[76] Luxemburg further stated:[77]
The awkward position that the Bolsheviks are in today, however, is, together with most of their mistakes, a consequence of basic insolubility of the problem posed to them by the international, above all the German, proletariat. To carry out the dictatorship of the proletariat and a socialist revolution in a single country surrounded by reactionary imperialist rule and in the fury of the bloodiest world war in human history – that is squaring the circle. Any socialist party would have to fail in this task and perish – whether or not it made self-renunciation the guiding star of its policies.
Bolshevik theorists such as Lenin and Trotsky responded to this criticism by arguing that Luxemburg's notions were classical Marxist ones, but they could not be applied to Russia of 1917. They stated that the lessons of actual experience such as the confrontation with the bourgeois parties had forced them to revise the Marxian strategy. As part of this argument, it was pointed out that after Luxemburg herself got out of jail, she was also forced to confront the National Assembly in Germany, a step they compared with their own conflict with the Russian Constituent Assembly.[78]
Following her observation of the October Revolution, Luxemburg claimed that it was the "historic responsibility" of the German workers to carry out a revolution for themselves and thereby end the war.[79] When the German Revolution began, Luxemburg immediately started to agitate for a social revolution[80] which she claimed would mitigate the consequences of the Bolsheviks|Bolsheviks's revolution.[77]
According to Aronowitz, the vagueness of "Luxemburgian" democracy is one reason for its initial difficulty in gaining widespread support. Luxemburg herself clarified her position on democracy in her writings regarding the Russian Revolution and the Soviet Union.[citation needed]
The Accumulation of Capital
The Accumulation of Capital was the only work Luxemburg officially published on economics during her lifetime. In the polemic, she argued that capitalism needs to constantly expand into non-capitalist areas in order to access new supply sources, markets for surplus value and reservoirs of labour.[81] According to Luxemburg, Marx had made an error in Das Kapital in that the proletariat could not afford to buy the commodities they produced and by his own criteria it was impossible for capitalists to make a profit in a closed-capitalist system since the demand for commodities would be too low and therefore much of the value of commodities could not be transformed into money. According to Luxemburg, capitalists sought to realise profits through offloading surplus commodities onto non-capitalist economies, hence the phenomenon of imperialism as capitalist states sought to dominate weaker economies. However, this was leading to the destruction of non-capitalist economies as they were increasingly absorbed into the capitalist system. With the destruction of non-capitalist economies, there would be no more markets to offload surplus commodities onto and capitalism would break down.[82]
The Accumulation of Capital was harshly criticised by both Marxist and non-Marxist economists on the grounds that her logic was circular in proclaiming the impossibility of realising profits in a close-capitalist system and that her underconsumptionist theory was too crude.[82] Her conclusion that the limits of the capitalist system drive it to imperialism and war led Luxemburg to a lifetime of campaigning against militarism and colonialism.[81]
Dialectic of Spontaneity and Organisation
The Dialectic of Spontaneity and Organisation was the central feature of Luxemburg's political philosophy, wherein
Social democracy is simply the embodiment of the modern proletariat's class struggle, a struggle which is driven by a consciousness of its own historic consequences. The masses are in reality their own leaders, dialectically creating their own development process. The more that social democracy develops, grows, and becomes stronger, the more the enlightened masses of workers will take their own destinies, the leadership of their movement, and the determination of its direction into their own hands.[85]
Congruently with her belief of inevitable revolution, Luxemburg also subscribed to Marxist Determinism, claiming that "the modern proletarian class does not carry out its struggle according to a plan set out in some book or theory; the modern workers' struggle is a part of history, a part of social progress."[86]
Legacy
Poland
In spite of her own Polish nationality and strong ties to Polish culture, her opposition to the independence of the
During the Polish People's Republic, a manufacturing facility of electric lamps in the Wola district of Warsaw (Polish capital and the place where Luxemburg was raised and grew up), was established and named as the Zakłady Wytwórcze Lamp Elektrycznych im. Róży Luksemburg (pl). After the transformation and change of regime, the factory was privatised in 1991 and then split up into four different companies; the factory buildings were sold by 1993 and fell into disuse in 1994.[87]
A street in Szprotawa used to be named after Luxemburg (ulica Róży Luksemburg) until it was changed to ulica Różana (Rose street) in September 2018.[88] Many other streets and locations in Poland either used to be or still are named after her, such as those in Warsaw, Gliwice, Będzin, Szprotawa, Lublin, Polkowice, Łódź, etc.[89][90][91][92][93]
Efforts to put up commemorative plaques in her memory have taken place in a number of Polish cities, such as Poznań and her birthplace Zamość. A 45-minute-long sightseeing tour around areas associated with the life of the Polish revolutionary was organised in Warsaw in 2019, where a statue of her by Alfred Jesion was also put on display at the Warsaw Citadel as part of the Gallery of Polish Sculpture of the 1950s.[90]
The commemorative plaque in Poznań, on the building where she lived in during May 1903, was vandalised with paint in 2013.[94] An official petition was started in 2021 to name a square in Wrocław after her, but the local government rejected the proposal.[95]
Herbarium
Luxemburg collected plant specimens from 1913 up to her death. She had a lifelong interest in botany and the natural world.[96] This was especially true when she was isolated during her imprisonments, during which time working on the herbarium was critical to her wellbeing, an escape from a harsh reality, and a connection to the outside world.[23] Holger Politt, one of the editors of the 2016 book, Rosa Luxemburg: Herbarium,[97] said, "Collecting and identifying plants helped her hold on to sanity. It was therapeutic to her; she couldn't have coped without it".[22]
Luxemburg's personal herbarium, which comprises 18 notebooks, is placed at the Archive of Modern Records in Warsaw, Poland.
Germany
In 1919, Bertolt Brecht wrote the poetic memorial Epitaph honouring Luxemburg and Kurt Weill set it to music in The Berlin Requiem in 1928:
Red Rosa now has vanished too,
And where she lies is hid from view.
She told the poor what life's about,
And so the rich have rubbed her out.
May she rest in peace.
The famous Monument to Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, originally named Monument to the November Revolution (Revolutionsdenkmal) which was designed by pioneering modernist and later Bauhaus director Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and built in 1926 in Berlin-Lichtenberg[98] and destroyed in 1935. The memorial took the form of a suprematist composition of brick masses. Van der Rohe said: "As most of these people [Rosa Luxemburg, Karl Liebknecht and other fallen heroes of the Revolution] were shot in front of a brick wall, a brick wall would be what I would build as a monument". The commission came about through the offices of Eduard Fuchs, who showed a proposal featuring Doric columns and medallions of Liebknecht and Luxemburg, prompting Mies' laughter and the comment "That would be a good monument for a banker". The monument was destroyed by the Nazis after they took power.
In 1951, Liebknecht and Luxemburg were honoured with symbolic graves at the Memorial to the Socialists (German: Gedenkstätte der Sozialisten) in the Friedrichsfelde Cemetery.
In the former East Germany and East Berlin, various places were named for Luxemburg by the East German communist party. These include the Rosa-Luxemburg-Platz and a U-Bahn station which were located in East Berlin during the Cold War.
An engraving on the nearby pavement reads "Ich war, ich bin, ich werde sein" ("I was, I am, I will be"). The Volksbühne (People's Theatre) is also on Rosa-Luxemburg-Platz.
Following the 1989 Peaceful Revolution and German reunification, CDU delegates on the Berlin city council recommended renaming all streets and squares honoring Marx, August Bebel, Liebknecht, Luxemburg and Clara Zetkin. In a rare moment of agreement, both PDS and SPD delegates balked at this and the battle became so heated that an independent commission was appointed to advise on the question. The commission ultimately recommended the compromise, "that Communists who had died too soon to help bring Weimar down, or the GDR up, should not be purged". For this reason, both streets and squares in the former East Berlin continue to bear Rosa Luxemburg's name.[99]
Dresden has a street and streetcar stop named after Luxemburg. The names remained unchanged after German reunification.
At the edge of the
The
Russia
Opponents and critics of the far-left have often had a very different interpretation of Luxemburg's murder. Russian historian Edvard Radzinsky has gone on the record as a very harsh critic of the Soviet Government for spending so much money abroad to fund the efforts of those like Liebknecht and Luxemburg to covertly destabilise and overthrow the Weimar Republic and other Western Governments. In the Soviet Union during the same time, mass starvation was taking place, first due to Lenin's policy of
As
Infamous, that fifteen thousand Russian officers should have let themselves be slaughtered by the Revolution without raising a hand in self-defense! Why didn't they act like the Germans, who killed Rosa Luxemburg in such a way that not even a smell of her has remained?
In popular culture and literature
Due to Luxemburg's importance in the development of theories of
- Bulgarian writer Hristo Smirnenski, who praised communist ideology, wrote the poem "Rosa Luxemburg" in tribute to Luxemburg in 1923.[108]
- Rosa Luxemburg (1986),[109][110][111][112] directed by Margarethe von Trotta. The film, which stars Barbara Sukowa as Luxemburg, was the winner of the Best Actress Award at the 1986 Cannes Film Festival.
- In 1992, the Quebec painter Jean-Paul Riopelle realised a fresco composed of thirty paintings entitled Tribute to Rosa Luxemburg.[113][114] It is on permanent display at the National Museum of Fine Arts of Quebec in Quebec City.
- Luxemburg influences the lives of several characters in William T. Vollmann's 2005 historical fiction Europe Central.[115]
- Rosa, a novel by Jonathan Rabb (2005), gives a fictional account of the events leading to Luxemburg's murder.
- The heroine in the novel Burger's Daughter (1979) by Nadine Gordimer is named Rosa Burger in homage to Luxemburg.[116]
- Harry Turtledove's Southern Victory series of alternate history novels contains an American socialist politician character named Flora Hamburger, a reference to the real historical personage of Luxemburg.
- Simon Louvish's 1994 alternate history novel The Resurrections (from Four Walls Eight Windows, a revision of Resurrections from the Dustbin of History: A Political Fantasy), had Luxemburg and Liebknecht avoid death, their revolution becoming reality in 1923 when a failed Reichstag coup by Gregor and Otto Strasser (plotted by the Black Reichswehr's Bruno Ernst Buchrucker) killed Gustav Stresemann, Wilhelm Cuno, Hans von Seeckt and 17 deputies followed by the Marxists creating a Berlin commune whose squads executed the Strassers and any Nazis not already in exile, the Reichswehr then disarming the Freikorps and accepting a German Soviet Republic's legitimacy, with Liebknecht as Minister of the Interior.[117]
- The pet tortoise at Balliol College, Oxford was named in honour of Luxemburg. She went missing in spring 2004.[118][119]
- A song on the 1997 album Morskaya of the Russian rock band Mumiy Troll is titled in her honor.[120]
- Langston Hughes alludes to her death in the poem "Kids Who Die" in the line "Or the rivers where you're drowned like Liebknecht".[121]
- Luxemburg appears in Karl and Rosa, a novel by Alfred Döblin.[122]
- She also appears in the novel Time and Time Again by Ben Elton.[123]
- Red Rosa is a graphic novelisation by Kate Evans.[124]
- German artist Max Beckmann in his post WWI lithograph Das Martyrium depicts Luxemburg's murder as a sexual assault, her clothes torn, her underwear revealed, one soldier fondling her left breast; another smirking while aiming his rifle butt at her right breast, the hotel manager holding her legs apart. There is no historical justification for this depiction. Tellini in Woman's Art Journal 1997 argues both the sensationalising aspect of graphic sexual assault as well as the artist's misogyny were probably responsible.[125]
- The song Strange Time To Bloom, written by Nancy Kerr, "For Rosa Luxemburg, March 1871 – January 1919" appears on the 2019 Melrose Quartet album The Rudolph Variations.[126]
- The feminist magazine Lux, which began in 2020, says that it is named for Rosa Luxemburg, describing her as "one of the most creative minds to remake the socialist tradition".[127]
- Canadian author Kyo Maclear wrote in her 2017 book Birds, Art, Life: A year of observation about the pleasure that Luxemburg took when she was in prison from hearing and seeing birds, based on Luxemburg's letters from prison.[128]
Body identification controversy
On 29 May 2009, Spiegel online, the internet branch of the news magazine Der Spiegel, reported the recently considered possibility that someone else's remains had mistakenly been identified as Luxemburg's and buried as hers.[54]
The forensic pathologist Michael Tsokos, head of the Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences at the Berlin Charité, discovered a preserved corpse lacking head, feet, or hands in the cellar of the Charité's medical history museum. He found the corpse's autopsy report suspicious and decided to perform a CT scan on the remains. The body showed signs of having been waterlogged at some point and the scans showed that it was the body of a woman of 40–50 years of age who suffered from osteoarthritis and had legs of differing length, as Luxemburg had. A laboratory in Kiel also tested the corpse using radiocarbon dating techniques and confirmed that it dated from the same period as Luxemburg's murder.
The original autopsy, performed on 13 June 1919 on the body that was eventually buried at Friedrichsfelde, showed certain inconsistencies that supported Tsokos' hypothesis. The autopsy explicitly noted an absence of hip damage and stated that there was no evidence that the legs were of different lengths. Additionally, the autopsy showed no traces on the upper skull of the two blows by rifle butt inflicted upon Luxemburg. Finally, while the 1919 examiners noted a hole in the corpse's head between the left eye and ear, they did not find an exit wound or the presence of a bullet within the skull.
Assistant pathologist Paul Fraenckel appeared to doubt at the time that the corpse he had examined was Luxemburg's and in a signed addendum distanced himself from his colleague's conclusions. This addendum and the inconsistencies between the autopsy report and the known facts persuaded Tsokos to examine the remains more closely. According to eyewitnesses, when Luxemburg's body was thrown into the canal, weights were wired to her ankles and wrists. These could have slowly severed her extremities in the months her corpse spent in the water which would explain the missing hands and feet issue.[54]
Tsokos realised that DNA testing was the best way to confirm or deny the identity of the body as Luxemburg's. His team had initially hoped to find traces of the DNA on old postage stamps that Luxemburg had licked, but it transpired that Luxemburg had never done this, preferring to moisten stamps with a damp cloth. The examiners decided to look for a surviving blood relative and in July 2009 the German Sunday newspaper Bild am Sonntag reported that a great-niece of Luxemburg had been located – a 79-year-old woman named Irene Borde. She donated strands of her hair for DNA comparison.[129]
In December 2009, Berlin authorities seized the corpse to perform an autopsy before burying it in Luxemburg's grave.[130] The Berlin Public Prosecutor's office announced in late December 2009 that while there were indications that the corpse was Luxemburg's, there was not enough evidence to provide conclusive proof. In particular, DNA extracted from the hair of Luxemburg's niece did not match that belonging to the cadaver. Tsokos had earlier said that the chances of a match were only 40%. The remains were to be buried at an undisclosed location while testing was to continue on tissue samples.[131]
Works
- The Accumulation of Capital, translated by Agnes Schwarzschild in 1951. Routledge Classics 2003 edition. Originally published as Die Akkumulation des Kapitals in 1913.
- The Accumulation of Capital: an Anticritique, written in 1915.
- Gesammelte Werke (Collected Works), 5 volumes, Berlin, 1970–1975.
- Gesammelte Briefe (Collected Letters), 6 volumes, Berlin, 1982–1997.
- Politische Schriften (Political Writings), edited and with preface by Ossip K. Flechtheim, 3 volumes, Frankfurt am Main, 1966 ff.
- The Complete Works of Rosa Luxemburg, 14 volumes, London and New York, 2011.
- The Rosa Luxemburg Reader, edited by Peter Hudis and Kevin B. Anderson.
Writings
This is a list of selected writings:
Writing | Year | Text | Translator | Year of English publication |
---|---|---|---|---|
The Industrial Development of Poland | 1898 | English | Tessa DeCarlo | 1977 |
In Defence of Nationality | 1900 | English | Emal Ghamsharick | 2014 |
Social Reform or Revolution? | 1900 | English | ||
The Socialist Crisis in France | 1901 | English | ||
Organizational Questions of the Russian Social Democracy | 1904 | English | ||
The Mass Strike, the Political Party and the Trade Unions | 1906 | English | Patrick Lavin | 1906 |
The National Question | 1909 | English | ||
Theory & Practice | 1910 | English | ||
The Accumulation of Capital | 1913 | English | Agnes Schwarzschild | 1951 |
The Accumulation of Capital: An Anti-Critique | 1915 | English | ||
The Junius Pamphlet | 1915 | English | ||
The Russian Revolution | 1918 | English | ||
The Russian Tragedy | 1918 | English |
Speeches
Speech | Year | Transcript |
---|---|---|
Speeches to Stuttgart Congress | 1898 | English |
Speech to the Hanover Congress | 1899 | English |
Speech to the Nuremberg Congress of the German Social Democratic Party | 1908 | English |
See also
- Proletarian internationalism
- Rosa Luxemburg Foundation
- List of peace activists
- Nadezhda Krupskaya
- Alexandra Kollontai
Citations
- ^ Frederik Hetmann: Rosa Luxemburg. Ein Leben für die Freiheit, p. 308.
- ^ Feigel, Lara (9 January 2019). "The Murder of Rosa Luxemburg review – tragedy and farce". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 15 January 2019. Retrieved 12 July 2022.
- ^ Christian (15 January 2023). "Cinco obras de Rosa Luxemburgo para recordar su legado" [Five works by Rosa Luxemburg to remember her legacy]. Tercera Información (in Spanish). Retrieved 16 January 2023.
- ^ Leszek Kołakowski ([1981], 2008), Main Currents of Marxism, Vol. 2: The Golden Age, W. W. Norton & Company, Ch III: "Rosa Luxemburg and the Revolutionary Left".
- ^ a b c d Gedenken an Rosa Luxemburg und Karl Liebknecht – ein Traditionselement des deutschen Linksextremismus [Commemoration of Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht – a traditional element of German left-wing extremism] (PDF). BfV-Themenreihe (in German). Cologne: Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution. 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 December 2017.
- ^ ISBN 978-8365304599.
- ^ a b c d e Winkler, Anna (24 June 2019). "Róża Luksemburg. Pierwsza Polka z doktoratem z ekonomii". CiekawostkiHistoryczne.pl (in Polish). Retrieved 21 July 2021.
- ^ a b c d e f Winczewski, Damian (18 April 2020). "Prawdziwe oblicze Róży Luksemburg?". histmag.org. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Castle, Rory (16 June 2013). "Rosa Luxemburg, Her Family and the Origins of her Polish-Jewish Identity". praktykateoretyczna.pl. Praktyka Teoretyczna. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
- ^ a b J. P. Nettl, Rosa Luxemburg, Oxford University Press, 1969, pp. 54–55.
- ^ "Glossary of People: L". Marxists.org. Retrieved 22 February 2018.
- ^ "Matrikeledition". Matrikel.uzh.ch. Archived from the original on 6 February 2020. Retrieved 22 February 2018.
- ^ a b c d Merrick, Beverly G. (1998). "Rosa Luxemburg: A Socialist With a Human Face". Center for Digital Discourse and Culture at Virginia Tech University. Retrieved 18 May 2015.
- ^ Annette Insdorf (31 May 1987). "Rosa Luxemburg: More Than a Revolutionary". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 December 2008.
- ^ ISBN 978-8365304599.
- ^ a b Luksemburg, Róża (July 1893). "O wynaradawianiu (Z powodu dziesięciolecia rządów jen.-gub. Hurki)". Sprawa Robotnicza.
- ^ Weber, Hermann; Herbst, Andreas. "Luxemburg, Rosa". Handbuch der Deutschen Kommunisten. Karl Dietz Verlag, Berlin & Bundesstiftung zur Aufarbeitung der SED-Diktatur, Berlin. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
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- ^ ISBN 978-8365304599.
- ^ a b Blixer, Rene (10 January 2019). "Rosa's secret collection". Exberliner. Retrieved 2 July 2023.
- ^ a b "Rosa Luxemburg: A Thousand More Things". www.wikidata.org. Retrieved 2 July 2023.
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- ^ ISBN 978-8365304599.
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- ^ ISBN 978-8365304599.
- ^ Waters, p. 12.
- ^ Nettl, p. 383; Waters, p. 13.
- ^ "Selbst im Gefängnis Trost für andere". Die Zeit. Vol. 41/1984. Die Zeit (online). 5 October 1984. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
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- ^ Rosa Luxemburg: Gesammelte Briefe. Vol. 2, 5 and 6.
- ^ Waters, p. 20.
- ^ Gammel, Irene (25 March 2011). "The Letters of Rosa Luxemburg, translated by George Shriver". Globe and Mail. Retrieved 5 March 2024.
- ^ Waters, p. 19.
- ^ Rauba, Ryszard (28 September 2011). "Ryszard Rauba: Wątek niemiecki w zapomnianej korespondencji Róży Luksemburg". 1917.net. Instytut Politologii, Uniwersytet Zielonogórski. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
- ^ Weitz, Eric D. (1994). "'Rosa Luxemburg Belongs to Us!'". German Communism and the Luxemburg Legacy. Central European History (27: 1), pp. 27–64.
- ^ a b Kate Evans, Red Rosa: A Graphic Biography of Rosa Luxemburg, New York, Verso, 2015
- ^ Weitz, Eric D. (1997). Creating German Communism, 1890–1990: From Popular Protests to Socialist State. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
- ^ a b Paul Frölich, Rosa Luxemburg, London: Haymarket Books, 2010
- ^ "The Russian Revolution, Chapter 6: The Problem of Dictatorship". Marxists.org. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
- ^ "Die Krise der Sozialdemokratie (Junius-Broschüre)".
- ^ Edvard Radzinsky (1996), Stalin: The First In-Depth Biography Based on Explosive Documents from Russia's Secret Archive, Anchor Books. p. 158.
- ISBN 978-9029576390. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
- ^ von Hellfeld, Matthias (16 November 2009). "Long Live the Republic – 9 November 1918". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 30 November 2014.
- ^ Robert Service (2012), Spies and Commissars: The Early Years of the Russian Revolution, Public Affairs Books. pp. 171–173.
- ^ Luban, Ottokar (2017). The Role of the Spartacist Group after 9 November 1918 and the Formation of the KPD In Hoffrogge, Ralf; LaPorte, Norman (eds.). Weimar Communism as Mass Movement 1918–1933. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pp. 45–65.
- ^ Luxemburg, Rosa (2004). "Our Program and the Political Situation". In Hudis, Peter; Anderson, Kevin B. (eds.). The Rosa Luxemburg Reader. Monthly Review. p. 364.
- ^ a b Jones 2016, p. 193.
- ^ a b Luxemburg, Rosa (1940) [1918]. "The Problem of Dictatorship". The Russian Revolution. Translated by Wolfe, Bertram. New York: Workers Age Publishers.
- ^ Jones 2016, pp. 193–194.
- ^ Jones 2016, p. 210.
- ^ Jones 2016, p. 203.
- ^ a b c d Thadeusz, Frank (29 May 2009). "Revolutionary Find: Berlin Hospital May Have Found Rosa Luxemburg's Corpse". Der Spiegel. Retrieved 30 November 2014.
- Daily Standard. No. 2575. Queensland, Australia. 2 April 1921. p. 3. Retrieved 1 December 2022 – via National Library of Australia.
- ^ Wroe, David (18 December 2009). "Rosa Luxemburg Murder Case Reopened". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 30 November 2014.
- ^ Robert S. Wistrich, From Ambivalence to Betrayal: The Left, the Jews, and Israel, University of Nebraska Press, 2012, p. 371
- ^ Robert Service (2012), Spies and Commissars: The Early Years of the Russian Revolution, Public Affairs Books. p. 174.
- ^ Luxemburg, Rosa. "Order Reigns in Berlin". Collected Works. Vol. 4. p. 536.
- ^ a b Waters, pp. 18–19.
- ^ Edvard Radzinsky (1996), Stalin: The First In-Depth Biography Based on Explosive Documents from Russia's Secret Archive, Anchor Books. pp. 158–159.
- ^ Nettl, J. P. (1969). Rosa Luxemburg. Oxford University Press. pp. 487–490.
- ^ "Martyrdom of Liebknecht and Luxemburg". Revolutionarydemocracy.org. Retrieved 22 February 2018.
- OCLC 1089197675.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ Larsen, Patrick (15 January 2009). "Ninety Years after the Murder of Rosa Luxemburg: Lessons of the Life of a Revolutionary". International Marxist Tendency. Archived from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 18 May 2015.
- ^ Trotsky, Leon (15 January 1919). "Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg". International Marxist Tendency. Archived from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 18 May 2015.
- ^ Trotsky, Leon (June 1932). "Hands Off Rosa Luxemburg!". International Marxist Tendency. Archived from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 18 May 2015.
- ^ Meintz, Rene (13 January 2019). "Liebknecht-Luxemburg-Demonstration". Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg-Portal.
- ^ "Luxemburg-Liebknecht-Demonstration". Jugendopposition in der DDR.
- ^ David Clay Large (2000), Berlin, Basic Books. p. 520.
- ^ "Gloomy German left remembers murdered Rosa Luxemburg". The Local Germany. 13 January 2019.
- ^ "Berlin: 15,000 Rally to Remember the 100th Anniversary of the Assassination Of Communists Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht". 13 January 2019. Retrieved 13 January 2019.
- ^ "What can we learn from Rosa Luxemburg, 100 years after her murder?". www.thelocal.de. 15 January 2019.
- ^ Luxemburg, Rosa. "The Politics of Mass Strikes and Unions". Collected Works. Vol. 2. p. 245.
- ^ "The Nationalities Question in the Russian Revolution (Rosa Luxemburg, 1918)". Libcom.org. 11 July 2006. Archived from the original on 15 January 2021. Retrieved 16 May 2021.
- ^ Luxemburg, Rosa. "On the Russian Revolution". Collected Works. Vol. 4. p. 334.
- ^ a b Luxemburg, Rosa (September 1918). "The Russian Tragedy". Spartacus. No. 11. Retrieved 29 November 2018.
- ^ Luxemburg, Rosa. "Fragment on War, National Questions, and Revolution". Collected Works. Vol. 4. p. 366.
- ^ Luxemburg, Rosa. "The Historic Responsibility g". Collected Works. Vol. 4. p. 374.
- ^ Luxemburg, Rosa. "The Beginning". Collected Works. Vol. 4. p. 397.
- ^ ISBN 978-1931859363.
- ^ a b Kołakowski, Leszek (2008). Main Currents of Marxism. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 407–415.
- ^ Luxemburg, Rosa. "In a Revolutionary Hour: What Next?". Collected Works. Vol. 1. p. 554.
- ^ Rosa Luxemburg at the Encyclopædia Britannica
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- ^ Luxemburg, Rosa. "The Politics of Mass Strikes and Unions". Collected Works. Vol. 2. p. 465.
- ^ Kołakowski, Marek (23 October 2008). "Kalendarium historii polskiego przemysłu oświetleniowego". lighting.pl. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
- ^ "Szprotawa – Ulica Róży Luksemburg – ulicą Różaną". szprotawa.pl. Urząd Miejski w Szprotawie. 11 September 2018. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
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- ^ a b Stańczyk, Xawery (16 January 2019). "Warszawa potrzebuje Róży Luksemburg". warszawa.wyborcza.pl. Gazeta Wyborcza. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
- ^ "Ulica Róży Luksemburg (dziś ulica Popiełuszki)". biblioteka.teatrnn.pl. Ośrodek "Brama Grodzka – Teatr NN". Retrieved 28 May 2022.
- ^ "Dawnych bohaterów czar". polkowice.eu. Urząd Gminy Polkowice. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
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- ^ AGA (5 March 2013). "Bohaterowie poznańskich ulic: Róża Luksemburg na zniszczonej tablicy". poznan.naszemiasto.pl. Polska Press Sp. z o. o. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
- ^ mk (22 April 2021). "Skwer przy ul. Kleczkowskiej we Wrocławiu nie będzie nosił imienia Róży Luksemburg". radiowroclaw.pl. Radio Wrocław. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
- ^ S2CID 259066901.
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- ^ "Mies van der Rohe". Facebook.com. Retrieved 22 February 2018.
- ^ David Clay Large (2000), Berlin, Basic Books. pp. 560–561.
- ^ Achacar, Gilbert. "The Actuality of Ernest Mandel".
- ^ "Workers World Jan. 31, 2002: Berlin events honor left-wing leaders" Archived 5 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Edvard Radzinsky (1996), Stalin: The First In-Depth Biography Based on Explosive Documents from Russia's Secret Archive, Anchor Books. p. 182.
- ^ Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky. Verso Books. p. 193.
- ISBN 978-1-78873-168-3.
- ^ a b Kessler, Harry Graf (1990). Berlin in Lights: The Diaries of Count Harry Kessler (1918–1937). New York: Grove Press. Tuesday 28 March 1922.
- ^ "German corpse 'may be Luxemburg'". BCC News. 29 May 2009. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
- ^ "14 Badass Historical Women To Name Your Daughters After". BuzzFeed. 13 January 2016. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
- ^ hakki (7 October 2015). "Hristo Smirnenski Kimdir?". Hakkında Bilgi (in Turkish). Retrieved 21 April 2019.
- ^ Die Geduld der Rosa Luxemburg (1986), retrieved 30 March 2019
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- ^ "Rosa Luxemburg (Die Geduld der Rosa Luxemburg)". Independent Cinema Office. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
- ^ Platypus Affiliated Society, Rosa Luxemburg, retrieved 30 March 2019
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- ^ Québec, Musée national des beaux-arts du. "Mitchell | Riopelle – Nothing in Moderation". Newswire.ca. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
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- ^ "Balliol made them". The Daily Telegraph. London. 27 April 2010. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ "Morskaya (Nautical), by Mumiy Troll". Mumiy Troll. Archived from the original on 10 February 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2019.
- ^ "Langston Hughes – Kids Who Die". Genius. Retrieved 21 April 2019.
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- ^ "Melrose Quartet". Retrieved 7 November 2019.
- ^ "About".
- ISBN 978-1501154201.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ "DNA of Great-Niece May Help Identify Headless Corpse". Spiegel Online. SpiegelOnline. 21 July 2009. Retrieved 21 July 2009.
- ^ "Berlin Authorities Seize Corpse for Pre-Burial Autopsy". Spiegel Online. SpiegelOnline. 17 December 2009. Retrieved 17 December 2009.
- ^ "Rosa Luxemburg "floater" released for burial after 90 years". Lost in Berlin. Salon.com. 30 December 2009. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012.
Bibliography
- Abraham, Richard (1989). Rosa Luxemburg: A Life for the International.
- Basso, Lelio (1975). Rosa Luxemburg: A Reappraisal. London.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Bronner, Stephen Eric (1984). Rosa Luxemburg: A Revolutionary for Our Times.
- Cliff, Tony (1980) [1959]. "Rosa Luxemburg". International Socialism (2/3). London.
- Dunayevskaya, Raya (1982). Rosa Luxemburg, Women's Liberation, and Marx's Philosophy of Revolution. New Jersey.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Ettinger, Elzbieta (1988). Rosa Luxemburg: A Life.
- Frölich, Paul (1939). Rosa Luxemburg: Her Life and Work.
- Geras, Norman (1976). The Legacy of Rosa Luxemburg.
- Gietinger, Klaus (1993). Eine Leiche im Landwehrkanal – Die Ermordung der Rosa L. (A Corpse in the Landwehrkanal – The Murder of Rosa L.) (in German). Berlin: Verlag. ISBN 978-3-930278-02-2.
- Gietinger, Klaus (2019). The Murder of Rosa Luxemburg. Translated by Halborn, L. New York: Verso. ISBN 978-1-78873-448-6.
- Hetmann, Frederik (1980). Rosa Luxemburg: Ein Leben für die Freiheit. Frankfurt. ISBN 978-3-596-23711-1.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - Jones, Mark (2016). Founding Weimar: Violence and the German Revolution of 1918–1919. ISBN 978-1-107-11512-5.
- Joffre-Eichhorn, Hjalmar Jorge (2021, ed.), Post Rosa: Letters against Barbarism. Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung: New York.
- Kemmerer, Alexandra (2016), "Editing Rosa: Luxemburg, the Revolution, and the Politics of Infantilization". European Journal of International Law, Vol. 27 (3), 853–864.
- Hudis, Peter; Anderson, Kevin B., eds. (2004). The Rosa Luxemburg Reader. Monthly Review Press.
- Kulla, Ralf (1999). Revolutionärer Geist und Republikanische Freiheit. Über die verdrängte Nähe von Hannah Arendt und Rosa Luxemburg. Mit einem Vorwort von Gert Schäfer. Diskussionsbeiträge des Instituts für Politische Wissenschaft der Universität Hannover. Vol. Band 25. Hannover: Offizin Verlag. ISBN 978-3-930345-16-8.
- Nettl, J. P. (1966). Rosa Luxemburg. It is long considered the definitive biography of Luxemburg.
- Roland Holst, Henriette (1937). Rosa Luxemburg: ihr Leben und Wirken. Zürich: Jean-Christophe-Verlag.
- Shepardson, Donald E. (1996). Rosa Luxemburg and the Noble Dream. New York.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Waters, Mary-Alice (1970). Rosa Luxemburg Speaks. London: Pathfinder. ISBN 978-0873481465.
- Weitz, Eric D. (1997). Creating German Communism, 1890–1990: From Popular Protests to Socialist State. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
- Priestand, David (2009). Red Flag: A History of Communism. New York: Grove Press.
- Weitz, Eric D. (1994). "'Rosa Luxemburg Belongs to Us!'" German Communism and the Luxemburg Legacy. Central European History (27: 1). pp. 27–64.
- Evans, Kate (2015). Red Rosa: A Graphic Biography of Rosa Luxemburg. New York: Verso.
- Luban, Ottokar (2017). The Role of the Spartacist Group after 9 November 1918 and the Formation of the KPD. In Hoffrogge, Ralf; LaPorte, Norman (eds.). Weimar Communism as Mass Movement 1918–1933. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pp. 45–65.
Further reading
- Brie, Michael; Schütrumpf, Jörn (2021). Rosa Luxemburg: A Revolutionary Marxist at the Limits of Marxism. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-67486-1.
- Kończal, Kornelia (2013), “Ich war, ich bin, ich werde sein”? Rosa Luxemburg in den deutschen und den polnischen Erinnerungen (with Maciej Górny), in: Germanica Wratislaviensia, No. 137, p. 161–181.
External links
- Rosa Luxemburg at the Marxists Internet Archive
- Rosa Luxemburg Foundation
- Jörn Schütrumpf Rosa Luxemburg or: The Price of Freedom
- Socialist Studies Special Issue on Rosa Luxembourg
- Rosa Luxemburg: Revolutionary Hero
- Rosa Luxemburg: A Socialist With a Human Face
- Rosa Luxemburg: "The War and the Workers" (1916)
- German Corpse 'may be Luxemburg', BBC News, 29 May 2009
- Revolutionary Rosa: The Letters of Rosa Luxemburg, reviewed by Irene Gammel for the Globe and Mail
- Luxemburg-Jacob papers at the Online Archive of California
- Works by Rosa Luxemburg at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Rosa Luxemburg at Internet Archive
- Works by Rosa Luxemburg at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Trotsky on Luxemburg and Liebknecht at the Wayback Machine (archived 28 October 2009)
- Newspaper clippings about Rosa Luxemburg in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW