Lydia
Kingdom of Lydia | |||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1200–546 BC | |||||||||||||||||
Capital | Sardis | ||||||||||||||||
Common languages | Lydian | ||||||||||||||||
Religion | Lydian religion | ||||||||||||||||
Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||||||
Kings[a] | |||||||||||||||||
• 680–644 BC | Gyges | ||||||||||||||||
• 644–637 BC | Ardys | ||||||||||||||||
• 637–635 BC | Sadyattes | ||||||||||||||||
• 635–585 BC | Alyattes | ||||||||||||||||
• 585–546 BC | Croesus | ||||||||||||||||
Historical era | Iron Age | ||||||||||||||||
1200 BC | |||||||||||||||||
670–630s BC | |||||||||||||||||
612–600 BC | |||||||||||||||||
590–585 BC | |||||||||||||||||
546 BC | |||||||||||||||||
Currency | Croeseid | ||||||||||||||||
|
Lydia (
The Kingdom of Lydia existed from about 1200 BC to 546 BC. At its greatest extent, during the 7th century BC, it covered all of western Anatolia. In 546 BC, it became a satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire, known as Sparda in Old Persian. In 133 BC, it became part of the Roman province of Asia.
The region of the Lydian kingdom was during the 15th–14th centuries BC part of the Arzawa kingdom. However, the Lydian language is usually not categorized as part of the Luwic subgroup, unlike the other nearby Anatolian languages Luwian, Carian, and Lycian.[2]
Lydian coins, made of silver, are among the oldest in existence, dated to around the 7th century BC.[3][4]
Geography
Lydia is generally located east of ancient
The boundaries of historical Lydia varied across the centuries. It was bounded first by
Language
The
History
Early history: Maeonia and Lydia
Lydia developed after the decline of the
Autochthonous dynasties
According to Herodotus, Lydia was ruled by three dynasties from the second millennium BC to 546 BC. The first two dynasties are legendary and the third is historical. Herodotus mentions three early Maeonian kings: Manes, his son Atys and his grandson Lydus.[11] Lydus gave his name to the country and its people. One of his descendants was Iardanus, with whom Heracles was in service at one time. Heracles had an affair with one of Iardanus' slave-girls and their son Alcaeus was the first of the Lydian Heraclids.[12]
The Maeonians relinquished control to the Heracleidae and Herodotus says they ruled through 22 generations for a total of 505 years from c. 1192 BC. The first Heraclid king was Agron, the great-grandson of Alcaeus.[12] He was succeeded by 19 Heraclid kings, names unknown, all succeeding father to son.[12] In the 8th century BC, Meles became the 21st and penultimate Heraclid king and the last was his son Candaules (died c. 687 BC).[13][14]
The Mermnad Empire
Gyges
Available historical evidence suggests that Candaules was overthrown by a man named Gyges, of whose origins nothing is known except for the Greek historian Herodotus's claim that he was the son of a man named
Gyges took advantage of the power vacuum created by the Cimmerian invasions to consolidate his kingdom and make it a military power, he contacted the
In 644 BC, Lydia faced a third attack by the Cimmerians, led by their king
Ardys and Sadyattes
Gyges was succeeded by his son Ardys, who resumed diplomatic activity with Assyria and would also have to face the Cimmerians.[21][20] Ardys attacked the Ionian Greek city of Miletus and succeeded in capturing the city of Priene, after which Priene would remain under direct rule of the Lydian kingdom until its end.[22][18]
Ardys's reign was short-lived,[23] and in 637 BC, that is in Ardys's seventh regnal year, the Thracian Treres tribe who had migrated across the Thracian Bosporus and invaded Anatolia,[24] under their king Kobos, and in alliance with the Cimmerians and the Lycians, attacked Lydia.[20] They defeated the Lydians again and for a second time sacked the Lydian capital of Sardis, except for its citadel. It is probable that Ardys was killed during this Cimmerian attack.[23][25]
Ardys was succeeded by his son, Sadyattes, who had an even more short-lived reign.[23] Sadyattes died in 635 BC, and it is possible that, like his grandfather Gyges and maybe his father Ardys as well, he died fighting the Cimmerians.[23]
Alyattes
Amidst extreme turmoil, Sadyattes was succeeded in 635 BC by his son
Soon after Alyattes's ascension and early during his reign, with Assyrian approval[27] and in alliance with the Lydians,[28] the Scythians under their king Madyes entered Anatolia, expelled the Treres from Asia Minor, and defeated the Cimmerians so that they no longer constituted a threat again, following which the Scythians extended their domination to Central Anatolia[29] until they were themselves expelled by the Medes from Western Asia in the 590s BC.[20] This final defeat of the Cimmerians was carried out by the joint forces of Madyes, whom Strabo credits with expelling the Treres and Cimmerians from Asia Minor, and of Alyattes, whom Herodotus of Halicarnassus and Polyaenus claim finally defeated the Cimmerians.[30][31]
Alyattes turned towards Phrygia in the east, where extended Lydian rule eastwards to Phrygia.[32] Alyattes continued his expansionist policy in the east, and of all the peoples to the west of the Halys River whom Herodotus claimed Alyattes's successor Croesus ruled over - the Lydians, Phrygians, Mysians, Mariandyni, Chalybes, Paphlagonians, Thyni and Bithyni Thracians, Carians, Ionians, Dorians, Aeolians, and Pamphylians - it is very likely that a number of these populations had already been conquered under Alyattes, and it is not impossible that the Lydians might have subjected Lycia, given that the Lycian coast would have been important for the Lydians because it was close to a trade route connecting the Aegean region, the Levant, and Cyprus.[32][33]
Alyattes's eastern conquests brought the Lydian Empire in conflict in the 590s BC with the Medes,[34] and a war broke out between the Median and Lydian Empires in 590 BC which was waged in eastern Anatolia lasted five years, until a solar eclipse occurred in 585 BC during a battle (hence called the Battle of the Eclipse) opposing the Lydian and Median armies, which both sides interpreted as an omen to end the war. The Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II and the king Syennesis of Cilicia acted as mediators in the ensuing peace treaty, which was sealed by the marriage of the Median king Cyaxares's son Astyages with Alyattes's daughter Aryenis, and the possible wedding of a daughter of Cyaxares with either Alyattes or with his son Croesus.[35][36][32][37]
Croesus
Alyattes died shortly after the Battle of the Eclipse, in 585 BC itself,[23] following which Lydia faced a power struggle between his son Pantaleon, born from a Greek woman, and his other son Croesus, born from a Carian noblewoman, out of which the latter emerged successful.[15]
Croesus brought Caria under the direct control of the Lydian Empire,[18] and he subjugated all of mainland Ionia, Aeolis, and Doris, but he abandoned his plans of annexing the Greek city-states on the islands of the Aegean Sea and he instead concluded treaties of friendship with them, which might have helped him participate in the lucrative trade the Aegean Greeks carried out with Egypt at Naucratis.[18] According to Herodotus, Croesus ruled over all the peoples to the west of the Halys River, although the actual border of his kingdom was further to the east of the Halys, at an undetermined point in eastern Anatolia.[35][36][32][38][39]
Croesus continued the friendly relations with the Medes concluded between his father Alyattes and the Median king Cyaxares, and he continued these good relations with the Medes after he succeeded Alyattes and Astyages succeeded Cyaxares.[32] And, under Croesus's rule, Lydia continued its good relations started by Gyges with the Saite Egyptian kingdom, then ruled by the pharaoh Amasis II.[32] Croesus also established trade and diplomatic relations with the Neo-Babylonian Empire of Nabonidus,[32] and he further increased his contacts with the Greeks on the European continent by establishing relations with the city-state of Sparta.[18]
In 550 BC, Croesus's brother-in-law, the Median king Astyages, was overthrown by his own grandson, the Persian king Cyrus the Great,[32] and Croesus responded by attacking Pteria, the capital of a Phrygian state vassal to the Lydians which might have attempted to declare its allegiance to the new Persian Empire of Cyrus. Cyrus retaliated by intervening in Cappadocia and defeated the Lydians at Pteria in a battle, and again at Thymbra before besieging and capturing the Lydian capital of Sardis, thus bringing an end to the rule of the Mermnad dynasty and to the Lydian Empire. Lydia would never regain its independence and would remain a part of various successive empires.[32]
Although the dates for the battles of Pteria and Thymbra and of end of the Lydian empire have been traditionally fixed to 547 BC,[40] more recent estimates suggest that Herodotus's account being unreliable chronologically concerning the fall of Lydia means that there are currently no ways of dating the end of the Lydian kingdom; theoretically, it may even have taken place after the fall of Babylon in 539 BC.[40][41]
Persian Empire
In 547 BC, the Lydian king
Hellenistic Empire
Lydia remained a satrapy after Persia's conquest by the Macedonian king
When Alexander's empire ended after his death, Lydia was possessed by the major Asian diadoch dynasty, the
Roman province of Asia
When the Romans entered the capital Sardis in 133 BC, Lydia, as the other western parts of the Attalid legacy, became part of the
Roman province of Lydia
Under the tetrarchy reform of Emperor Diocletian in 296 AD, Lydia was revived as the name of a separate Roman province, much smaller than the former satrapy, with its capital at Sardis.
Together with the provinces of
Byzantine (and Crusader) age
Under the Byzantine emperor Heraclius (610–641), Lydia became part of
Under Turkish rule
Lydia was captured finally by Turkish .
Legacy
First coinage
According to
The dating of these first stamped coins is one of the most frequently debated topics of ancient numismatics,[46] with dates ranging from 700 BC to 550 BC, but the most common opinion is that they were minted at or near the beginning of the reign of King Alyattes (sometimes referred to incorrectly as Alyattes II).[47][48] The first coins were made of electrum, an alloy of gold and silver that occurs naturally but that was further debased by the Lydians with added silver and copper.[49]
The largest of these coins are commonly referred to as a 1/3 stater (trite) denomination, weighing around 4.7 grams, though no full staters of this type have ever been found, and the 1/3 stater probably should be referred to more correctly as a stater, after a type of a transversely held scale, the weights used in such a scale (from ancient Greek ίστημι=to stand), which also means "standard."[51] These coins were stamped with a lion's head adorned with what is likely a sunburst, which was the king's symbol.[52] The most prolific mint for early electrum coins was Sardis which produced large quantities of the lion head thirds, sixths and twelfths along with lion paw fractions.[53] To complement the largest denomination, fractions were made, including a hekte (sixth), hemihekte (twelfth), and so forth down to a 96th, with the 1/96 stater weighing only about 0.15 grams. There is disagreement, however, over whether the fractions below the twelfth are actually Lydian.[54]
Alyattes' son was Croesus (Reigned c.560–c.546 BC), who became associated with great wealth. Croesus is credited with issuing the Croeseid, the first true gold coins with a standardised purity for general circulation,[50] and the world's first bimetallic monetary system circa 550 BC.[50]
It took some time before ancient coins were used for commerce and trade. Even the smallest-denomination electrum coins, perhaps worth about a day's subsistence, would have been too valuable for buying a loaf of bread.[55] The first coins to be used for retailing on a large-scale basis were likely small silver fractions, Hemiobol, Ancient Greek coinage minted in Cyme (Aeolis) under Hermodike II then by the Ionian Greeks in the late sixth century BC.[56]
Sardis was renowned as a beautiful city. Around 550 BC, near the beginning of his reign, Croesus paid for the construction of the
In Greek mythology
For the Greeks,
In Greek myth, Lydia had also adopted the double-axe symbol, that also appears in the Mycenaean civilization, the
Later chronologists ignored Herodotus' statement that Agron was the first Heraclid to be a king, and included his immediate forefathers Alcaeus, Belus, and Ninus in their list of kings of Lydia. Strabo (5.2.2) has Atys, father of Lydus and Tyrrhenus, as a descendant of Heracles and Omphale but that contradicts virtually all other accounts which name Atys, Lydus, and Tyrrhenus among the pre-Heraclid kings and princes of Lydia. The gold deposits in the river Pactolus that were the source of the proverbial wealth of Croesus (Lydia's last king) were said to have been left there when the legendary king Midas of Phrygia washed away the "Midas touch" in its waters. In Euripides' tragedy The Bacchae, Dionysus, while maintaining his human disguise, declares his country to be Lydia.[60]
Lydians, the Tyrrhenians and the Etruscans
The relationship between the
In contemporary scholarship, Etruscologists overwhelmingly support an indigenous origin for the Etruscans,
Archaeological evidence does not support the idea of Lydian migration to Etruria.
A 2013 genetic study suggested that the maternal lineages of western Anatolians and modern Tuscans had been largely separate for 5,000 to 10,000 years, with Etruscan
A 2021 study confirmed these findings, showing that Etruscans and Latins in the Iron Age had similar genetic profiles and were part of the European cluster. The Etruscan DNA was completely absent a signal of recent admixture with Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean. Etruscans exhibited a blend of WHG, EEF, and Steppe ancestry, with 75% of males belonging to haplogroup R1b and the most common mitochondrial DNA haplogroup being H.[81]
Culture and society
Religion
Early Lydian religion
The Lydians in early Antiquity adhered to a polytheistic religion whose pantheon was composed of native Lydian deities who were reflexes of earlier Aegean-Balkan ones, as well as Anatolian deities, the latter of whom held lesser roles.[82]
Unlike traditionally Anatolian pantheons but similarly to the Phrygian one, the Lydian pantheon was headed by the goddess Artimus (𐤠𐤭𐤯𐤦𐤪𐤰𐤮), who was a deity of wild nature, and was also the Lydian variant of an earlier Aegean-Balkan goddess whose other reflexes included the Greek Artemis and the Phrygian Artimis. Being the main goddess of the Lydians, Artimus had a similar role to the Phrygian Matar Kubeleya,[83] and she possessed the features of the latter Mother goddess well as of a potnia thērōn,[84] and she was therefore represented using similar iconography as Matar Kubeleya.[85]
The consort of Artimus was the Moon-god Qaλiyãns (𐤲𐤷𐤣𐤵𐤫𐤮), who was the main masculine deity of the Lydian pantheon.[83] The Lydians shared this cult of a masculine lunar deity with the Phrygians, who worshipped the Moon-god Mas.[86]
Lews (𐤩𐤤𐤥𐤮) or Lefs (𐤩𐤤𐤱𐤮) was the Lydian equivalent of the Greek god Zeus and the Phrygian god Tiws. Unlike the Anatolian storm-god Tarḫuntas, Lews held a less prominent role in the Lydian religion.[83]
The goddess Lamẽtrus (𐤩𐤠𐤪𐤶𐤯𐤭𐤰𐤮) was, likewise, the Lydian reflex of an earlier Aegean-Balkan goddess whose Greek iteration was Dēmētēr.[83]
The frenzy god Pakiš (𐤡𐤠𐤨𐤦𐤳) to whom was performed an orgiastic cult was also a Lydian variant of an older Aegean-Balkan god whose Greek reflex was Bakkhos.[83]
The goddess Kufaws (𐤨𐤰𐤱𐤠𐤥𐤮) or Kuwaws (𐤨𐤰𐤥𐤠𐤥𐤮), who was an prominent Lydian deity possessing an important temple in Sardis,[87] was the daughter of the Mother goddess Artimus, as is visible from her depiction side by side with Artimus in a daughter-mother pairing in a c. 400 BC naiskos from Sardis, where the larger figure of Artimus holds a deer while the smaller figure of Kufaws holds a lion.[88] Kufaws was a young[89] goddess of divine frenzy, being thus the feminine counterpart of Pakiš.[90] Similarly to the relation between the Lydian Artimus and the Greek Artemis, Kufaws was the Lydian reflex of an earlier goddess whose Phrygian variant was the Mother goddess Kubeleya.[90]
Anatolian deities in the Lydian pantheon included the god Sãntas (𐤮𐤵𐤫𐤯𐤠𐤮),[83] who was the consort of Kufaws,[84] but whose nature is still uncertain. While this god's name corresponds to that of the Luwian Šandas, he might instead have been more similar to that of the ancient Greek hero Hēraklēs, whom Greek sources recorded was worshipped in Lydia.[91]
Accompanying Sãntas were several lesser demon-like figures called the Mariwyas (𐤪𐤠𐤭𐤦𐤥𐤣𐤠𐤮).[83]
Another Anatolian deity present in the Lydian pantheon was the goddess Maλiš (𐤪𐤠𐤷𐤦𐤳), who corresponded to the Hittite goddess Maliya[92] and the Greek goddess Athēna.[83]
Christianity
Lydia later had numerous Christian communities and, after
The ecclesiastical province of Lydia had a metropolitan diocese at
Episcopal sees
Ancient episcopal sees of the late Roman province of Lydia are listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees:[94]
- Caicus)
- Apollonis (Palamit)
- Apollonos-Hieron(near Boldan)
- Attalea in Lydia (Yanantepe)
- Aureliopolis in Lydia
- Bagis
- Blaundus (ruins of Süleimanli near Uşak)
- Caunus
- Cerasa (Eliesler)
- Daldis (Narikale)
- Gordus
- Hermocapelia (Yahyaköy)
- Hierocaesarea
- Hypaepa
- Hyrcanis (Papazli)
- Caicus)
- Mesotymolus (ruins near Takmak?)
- Mostene (Asartepe)
- Philadelphia in Lydia
- Saittae(Sidaskale)
- Sala(Kepecik)
- Sardes, Metropolitan Archbishopric
- Satala in Lydia (Gölde in Manisa Province)
- Silandus
- Stratonicea in Lydia
- Tabala (Lydia) (Burgazkale)
- Thyatira
- Tracula (Darkale)
- Tralles (ruins near Göne)
- Tripolis in Lydia
See also
- Ancient regions of Anatolia
- Digda
- List of Kings of Lydia
- List of satraps of Lydia
- Ludim
Notes
- ^ tūran
References
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- ^ I. Yakubovich, Sociolinguistics of the Luvian Language, Leiden: Brill, 2010, p. 6
- ^ "Lydia" in Oxford Dictionary of English. Oxford University Press, 2010. Oxford Reference Online. 14 October 2011.
- ^ "The origins of coinage". britishmuseum.org. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
- ^ Bonfante, Giuliano; Bonfante, Larissa (1983). The Etruscan Language: An Introduction. Manchester University Press. p. 50.
..confirmed by an analysis of the Lydian language, which is Indo-European..
- ^ Mouton, Alice; Rutherford, Ian; Yakubovich, Ilya, eds. (2013). Luwian Identities: Culture, Language and Religion Between Anatolia and the. Brill. p. 4.
Although the Lydian language is only distantly related to Luwian...
- ^ "Lydia – All About Turkey". Allaboutturkey.com.
- ^ As for the etymologies of Lydia and Maionia, see H. Craig Melchert "Greek mólybdos as a Loanword from Lydian" Archived 2013-12-31 at the Wayback Machine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, pp. 3, 4, 11 (fn. 5).
- ^ See Strabo xiii.626.
- ^ Calmet, Augustin (1832). Dictionary of the Holy Bible. Crocker and Brewster. p. 648.
- ^ Herodotus 1975, p. 80.
- ^ a b c Herodotus 1975, p. 43.
- ^ Herodotus 1975, pp. 43–46.
- ^ Bury & Meiggs 1975, p. 82
- ^ a b Mellink 1991, p. 643-655.
- ^ a b Braun 1982, p. 36.
- ^ a b Mellink 1991, p. 663.
- ^ a b c d e Leloux, Kevin (2018). La Lydie d'Alyatte et Crésus: Un royaume à la croisée des cités grecques et des monarchies orientales. Recherches sur son organisation interne et sa politique extérieure (PDF) (PhD). Vol. 1. University of Liège. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 5 December 2021.
- ^ a b Cook 1988, p. 196-197.
- ^ JSTOR 599752. Retrieved 25 October 2021.
- ^ JSTOR 40001126. Retrieved 2 November 2021.
- ^ 'Miletos, the ornament of Ionia: history of the city to 400 BC' by Vanessa B. Gorman (University of Michigan Press) 2001
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- ^ Diakonoff 1985, p. 94-55.
- ^ Kristensen, Anne Katrine Gade (1988). Who were the Cimmerians, and where did they come from?: Sargon II, and the Cimmerians, and Rusa I. Copenhagen Denmark: The Royal Danish Academy of Science and Letters.
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- ^ Grousset 1970, p. 9
- ^ Diakonoff 1985, p. 126.
- JSTOR 123971. Retrieved 5 November 2021.
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- ^ Ivantchik 2006, p. 151.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Leloux, Kevin (2018). La Lydie d'Alyatte et Crésus: Un royaume à la croisée des cités grecques et des monarchies orientales. Recherches sur son organisation interne et sa politique extérieure (PDF) (PhD). Vol. 2. University of Liège. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 May 2022.
- ^ Lendering, Jona (2003). "Alyattes of Lydia". Livius. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ISBN 978-1-139-05429-4.
- ^ a b Diakonoff 1985, p. 125-126.
- ^ hdl:2268/207259. Retrieved 30 April 2019.
- ISBN 978-9-990-93968-2.
- ISBN 978-9-990-93968-2.
- ^ Lendering, Jona (2003). "Alyattes of Lydia". Livius. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
- ^ JSTOR 3296933. Retrieved 11 May 2022.
- . Retrieved 12 May 2022.
- ISBN 1-59244-230-7p. 65
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- ^ "Coinage". worldhistory.org.
- ^ Carradice and Price, Coinage in the Greek World, Seaby, London, 1988, p. 24.
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- ^ "CROESUS – Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
- ^ A. Ramage, "Golden Sardis," King Croesus' Gold: Excavations at Sardis and the History of Gold Refining, edited by A. Ramage and P. Craddock, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 2000, p. 18.
- ^ M. Cowell and K. Hyne, "Scientific Examination of the Lydian Precious Metal Coinages," King Croesus' Gold: Excavations at Sardis and the History of Gold Refining, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 2000, pp. 169–174.
- ^ ISBN 9780199372188.
- ^ L. Breglia, "Il materiale proveniente dalla base centrale dell'Artemession di Efeso e le monete di Lidia", Istituto Italiano di Numismatica Annali, volumes 18–19 (1971/72), pp. 9–25.
- S2CID 163067302.
- ^ KORAY KONUK. "ASIA MINOR TO THE IONIAN REVOLT" (PDF). Achemenet.com. Retrieved 12 March 2022.
- ^ M. Mitchiner, Ancient Trade and Early Coinage, Hawkins Publications, London, 2004, p. 219.
- ^ "Hoards, Small Change, and the Origin of Coinage," Journal of the Hellenistic Studies 84 (1964), p. 89
- ^ M. Mitchiner, p. 214
- ^ Sources noted in Karl Kerenyi, The Heroes of the Greeks 1959, p. 192.
- ^ Hyginus, Astronomica ii.14.
- ^ Robert Drews, Herodotus 1.94, the Drought Ca. 1200 B.C., and the Origin of the Etruscans, in Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte, vol. 41, no. 1, 1992, pp. 14–39.
- ^ Euripides. The Complete Greek Tragedies Vol IV., Ed by Grene and Lattimore, line 463
- ^ a b Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Roman Antiquities. Book I, Chapters 30 1.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-61451-520-3.
- ^ ISBN 9781444337341.
- ISBN 978-0-684-18536-1.
- ISBN 978-0-9650356-8-2.
- ISBN 9780191016752.
Briquel's convincing demonstration that the famous story of an exodus, led by Tyrrhenus from Lydia to Italy, was a deliberate political fabrication created in the Hellenized milieu of the court at Sardis in the early 6th cent. bce..
- ISBN 978-0-415-67308-2.
- ^ Dominique Briquel, Le origini degli Etruschi: una questione dibattuta sin dall’antichità, in M. Torelli (ed.), Gli Etruschi [Catalogo della mostra, Venezia, 2000], Bompiani, Milan, 2000, p. 43–51 (Italian).
- ISBN 978-8878145337.
Il termine "Villanoviano" è entrato nella letteratura archeologica quando, a metà dell '800, il conte Gozzadini mise in luce le prime tombe ad incinerazione nella sua proprietà di Villanova di Castenaso, in località Caselle (BO). La cultura villanoviana coincide con il periodo più antico della civiltà etrusca, in particolare durante i secoli IX e VIII a.C. e i termini di Villanoviano I, II e III, utilizzati dagli archeologi per scandire le fasi evolutive, costituiscono partizioni convenzionali della prima età del Ferro
- ISBN 9788843022618.
- ^ Giovanni Colonna (2000). "I caratteri originali della civiltà Etrusca". In Mario Torelli (ed.). Gi Etruschi (in Italian). Milan: Bompiani. pp. 25–41.
- ^ Dominique Briquel (2000). "Le origini degli Etruschi: una questione dibattuta fin dall'antichità". In Mario Torelli (ed.). Gi Etruschi (in Italian). Milan: Bompiani. pp. 43–51.
- ^ Gilda Bartoloni (2000). "Le origini e la diffusione della cultura villanoviana". In Mario Torelli (ed.). Gi Etruschi (in Italian). Milan: Bompiani. pp. 53–71.
- ISBN 0842523340.
- ISBN 978-2-7283-1138-5.
- ^ a b Bonfante, Giuliano; Bonfante, Larissa (2002). The Etruscan language: an introduction (2nd ed.). Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. p. 50.
- ISBN 9780521562560.
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Interestingly, although Iron Age individuals were sampled from both Etruscan (n=3) and Latin (n=6) contexts, we did not detect any significant differences between the two groups with f4 statistics in the form of f4(RMPR_Etruscan, RMPR_Latin; test population, Onge), suggesting shared origins or extensive genetic exchange between them.
- PMID 34559560.
- ^ Oreshko 2021, p. 137.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Oreshko 2021, p. 138.
- ^ a b Oreshko 2021, p. 154.
- ^ Oreshko 2021, p. 156.
- ^ Oreshko 2021, p. 135-136.
- ^ Oreshko 2021, p. 153-154.
- ^ Oreshko 2021, p. 156-157.
- ^ Oreshko 2021, p. 155-156.
- ^ a b Oreshko 2021, p. 158.
- ^ Oreshko 2021, p. 138-139.
- ^ Oreshko 2021, p. 133.
- ^ Le Quien, Oriens Christianus, i. 859–98
- ISBN 978-88-209-9070-1), "Sedi titolari", pp. 819–1013
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