Lynkestis
Lynkestis, Lyncestis, Lyngistis, Lynkos or Lyncus (
In its earlier history, Lynkestis was an independent polity ruled by a local dynasty which claimed descent from the
The inhabitants of Lynkestis were known as Lyncestae or Lynkestai (
In the second half of the 5th century BC Lynkestis was the strongest tribal state in Upper Macedonia under king
Lynkestis was annexed or retained by the Illyrian king
According to Hammond, the locals were recruited by Philip II to serve in the king’s army due to their common language as well as because they were accorded equal terms with the population of Lower Macedonia.[25] Later they contributed to the Indian campaign led by Alexander the Great.[26]
Name
The etymology of the geographical name Lynkos/Lynkestis and tribal name Lynkestai is uncertain. The geographical names that contain the root Λυγκ- Lynk- either may refer to the "
Geography
Lynkestis was the northernmost mountainous region of
Lynkestis was a small region but strategically situated as it was the entry point for Illyrian movements into central Macedonia.
Lynkestis and the rest of Upper Macedonia was characterized by cold winters with rainfalls that were very heavy, and hot summers. In this region life was hard and mainly a matter of survival. According to the season of the year the mostly nomadic pastoralist people of the area moved their flocks of cattle, goats and sheep to the various pasture lands.[33]
There were perhaps no towns of any size in Lynkestis prior to the foundation of Heraclea Lyncestis in the mid 4th century BC. The settlements were described only as "villages", which are typical of tribal peoples.[20] In Roman times, the Via Egnatia crossed the area and there were several Roman stations in it.[34]
History
Early period
Lyncestis and the rest of Upper Macedonia is marked in the Late Bronze Age by the appearance of finds of
Lynkestis was among the districts that constituted the heartland of
Following the withdrawal of the
Lynkestian kingdom
Lynkestis was originally an autonomous kingdom in the region of Upper Macedonia.
Classical era
A nominal confederacy between Lynkestis and the Upper Macedonian regions of Elimeia, Orestis and Pelagonia as well as Lower Macedonia (Pieria and Bottiaea) was created during the reign of
In 413 Perdiccas's son Archelaus obtained the throne of Macedon, and he evidently continued his father's conflict against the Lynkestians, probably involving Illyrians. The Macedonian king undertook a war against the Lynkestian Arrhabaeus and his Illyrian or Lynkestian ally, Sirras.[60][61] Seeking help from the king of Elimeia, the marriage of Archelaus' eldest daughter with the king of Elimeia ensured a solid Upper Macedonian ally for Archelaus' war against Arrhabaeus and Sirras.[60] Additionally, Archelaus made general ameliorations to the military and reinforced the borders of his kingdom,[62] which apparently held the Illyrians momentarily at bay.[63]
The Illyrians (or an Illyrian-Lynkestian coalition) under king
Macedonian rule
Illyrian dominion in Upper Macedonia, in particular in Lynkestis, and their incursions in Lower Macedonia in 360–359 BC have been the main impetus for Argead's incorporation of Upper Macedonia into the Macedonian kingdom.
The Lyncestae after incorporation retained their local ethnonym like the rest of the Upper Macedonian and Epirote tribes that became part of Macedon. This was not the case of the non-Greek populations (Thracians and Paeonians) indicating that the Lynkestae shared a common Greek identity with the core of the Macedonian kingdom.[74] The locals were recruited by Philip to serve in the king’s army due to their common language as well as due to the fact that they were accorded equal terms with the population of Lower Macedonia.[25]
In civilian life all Upper Macedonian populations retained the epithet "Macedonians" (Greek: Λυγκισταί Μακεδόνες etc.) in contrast to the non-Macedonian conquered populations; Illyrians, Paeonians, Chalkidians etc.[75]
The populations of Upper Macedonia contributed decisively to Alexander's victorious Indian campaign; three out of six brigades of Alexander's military in 330 BC came from Upper Macedonia and an essential part of them were men from Lyncestis. [26] Regional infantry regiments (taxeis) served in Alexander's army were composed of men from various Upper Macedonian regions including Lyncestis. In contrast to non-Macedonians who served in their own units and were general listed separately in the sources.[76]
Lynkestian dynasty
Lynkestian king Arrhabaeus who ruled in the second half of the 5th century BC was the son of Bomerus.[20] According to Strabo, Irra was the daughter of Arrhabaeus, and his granddaughter was Eurydice, the mother of Philip II.[77] Amyntas, one of the commanders sent by Philip II to defeat some of the Greek cities in Asia Minor, was a son of the Lynkestian king Arrhabaeus.[78]
Aeropus of Lynkestis, who was exiled by Philip II when he suspected him of treason, had three sons: Arrhabaeus, Heromenes, and Alexander.[79]
Culture
Language
The available inscriptional evidence suggests that the people of Lynkestis spoke
The Macedonian population residing in Upper and Lower Macedonia appears to have spoken a language that belonged to the same branch of the
A corpus of inscriptions from the region of Lynkestis (city of
Religion
A temple of
See also
References
Notes
Citations
- ^ Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, p. 318: Lynkestis (or Lynkos), was the northernmost of the mountainous Upper Makedonian regions; Hatzopoulos 2020, p. 224: "Lynkos (Lynkestai), region and principality in Upper Macedonia"; Worthington 2014, p. 14: "Upper Macedonia, on the other hand, had a far harsher climate and was the highlands of the country. Here, Elimiotis (in the south), Orestis (to the west), and Lyncestis (to the northwest, by Lake Lychnitis) had been originally autonomous kingdoms"; Bowden 2014, p. 42: "Two men from the leading family of Lyncestis in Upper Macedonia"; Lane Fox 2011, p. 342; Salmon 2012, p. 220; Cartledge 2011, p. 227.
- ^ a b Plant 2004, p. 43: "The kings of Lyncestae, however, were Greek-speaking, and claimed descent from the Bacchiadae, an important aristocratic Corinthian family."
- ^ a b c d Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, p. 138: Although it was rather small, L. controlled a route into Central Makedonia that made it a corridor of Illyrian invasions into the Argead realm. (..) While evidence for L. during the rule of the Argeads is scarce, the few existing snippets indicate that its rulers were well connected with the Illyrians and frequently hostile to the Argeads
- ^ Strabo, Geographica: 7, 7, 8.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-136-64004-9.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-674-00662-1.
Hecataeus calls the Eliminiotae, Orestae, Lyncastae, and Pelagones of Uppers Macedonia 'Molossian' and since Molossian inscriptions found at the sanctuary of Dodona are inscribed in a West Greek dialect, one would expect the Macedonians to have belonged to a West Greek linguistic Koinē that extended across much of northern and northwestern Greece
- ^ a b Hammond 1982, p. 266: "On crossing the Balkan chain, we find that Hecataeus called the Orestae 'a Molossian tribe' (F 107), and Strabo (434; cf. 326) probably derived from Hecataeus his belief that the Elimeotae, Lyncestae, and Pelagones, as well as the Orestae, were Epirotic or rather Molossian tribes before their incorporation by the Macedones into the Macedonian kingdom."
- ^ a b Eichner 2004, p. 99: "Thukydides nennt noch andere Stämme, die in späterer Quelle als illyrisch gelten, wie die Lynkester (II 99 Λύγκησται, als den Makedonen zugehörig, doch mit eigenen Königen) und die Atintaner (II 80, 6 Ἀτιντᾶνες, als Bundes-genosssen der Molosser, später südlich des Devoll ansässig), aber ohne sie zu als Illyrer bezeichnen."
- ^ Hatzopoulos 2020, p. 12: "This legend was hardly compatible with Thucydides' (2.99) more sober narrative, however: 'So Sitalces' army was being mustered at Doberus and preparing to pass over the mountain crest and descend upon lower Macedonia, of which Perdiccas was ruler. For the Macedonian race includes also the Lyncestians, Elimiotes, and other tribes of the upper country, which, though in alliance with the nearer Macedonians and subject to them, have kings of their own; but the country by the sea which is now called Macedonia, was first acquired and made their kingdom by Alexander, the father of Perdiccas, and his forefathers, who were originally Temenidae from Argos'."
- ^ ISBN 978-8846754158. Retrieved 18 January 2024.
Strabo (Geogr. 7.7.1, 7.7.8) who wrote on the basis of previous historians, such as Hecataeus, Theopompus and others, points to 14 tribes instead, since one must also take into account here three more tribes (Λυγκησταί, Πελαγόνες, Ἐλιμιῶται) which most classical and contemporary authors considered Macedonian.
- ^ a b Hammond 1993, pp. 132–133: "Further, the tribes which Strabo termed "Epirotic" — Orestai, Tymphaioi, Elimiotai, Lynkestai and Pelagones — are likely to have spoken the same dialect as the Molossians, to whom they were in some sense related."
- ^ a b Templar, Marcus Alexander (2009). "Hellenic Migrations and Katadesmos: A Paradigm of Macedonian Speech" (PDF). Ninth Viennial Conference of Greek Linguistics. University of Chicago: 8–9. Retrieved 18 January 2024.
- ^ D'Ercole 2020, p. 323: "This itinerary gave access to the prosperous mining districts of the hinterland, among these, the silver mine of Damastion, a still unidentified settlement in the Balkans, situated by Strabo (7-7.8) between the Illyrian tribes of Encheleii and Lyncestae. The cultural impact of the Corinthian colonies also reached the opposite"
- ^ Silberman & Zehnacker 2015, p. 190: "Lyncestae, population à majorité illyrienne (Liv. XLV, 30; Strab. VII, 7, 8), est traversée par l'Erigon (Crna Reka) et correspond à la partie est du lac Prespa et au nord de l'antique Eordaia"
- ^
- Hatzopoulos 2020, p. 12: "It is possible that the Derriopes were an outshot of the Upper Macedonian ethne, the foothills of Mount Peristeri assuring the territorial continuity with the Macedonian Lynkestai."
- King 2017, p. 5: "About 450 a royal dynasty claiming descent from aristocratic Bacchiad exiles from Corinth, who came to the region via Corcyra (a Corinthian colony) and Illyria, established itself and ruled over Lynkestian Macedonians."
- Gabriel 2010, p. 40: "The passes and mountains of the innermost defensive ring ran through Macedonia's four Upper Contaons -Elimeia, Orestes, Lyncus, and Pelagonia- which served as buffers between Macedonia proper and Illyria. The peoples of these cantons were Greek-speaking Macedonians who continued to live the old transhumant pastoral life
- ^
- Xydopoulos 2012, p. 529
- Hammond 2014, pp. 480, 482: "Of the cantons of Upper Macedonia .... Lyncus ... Upper Macedonia, which was peopled by Epirotic tribes with their own dialect of Greek"; and Hammond 2001, p. 158: "Pelagones in the region of Prilep, the Lyncestae in the region of Florina, the Orestae in the region of Kastoria, and the Elimeotae in the region of Kozani. These tribes were all Epirotic tribes and they talked the Greek language but with a different dialect, the Northwest Greek dialect, as we know now from the local questions which were put to the god of Dodona."
- Borza 1992, p. 74: "The western Greek people (with affinities to the Epirotic tribes) in Orestis, Lyncus, and parts of Pelagonia."
- ^
- Wheeler 2017, p. 434: "With his aid Perdiccas defeated in pitched battle his old enemy Arrhabaeus, king of Lyncestae, an Illyrian tribe inhabiting the mountainous region of the upper Erigon, near modern Bitola"
- D'Ercole 2020, p. 323: "This itinerary gave access to the prosperous mining districts of the hinterland, among these, the silver mine of Damastion, a still unidentified settlement in the Balkans, situated by Strabo (7-7.8) between the Illyrian tribes of Encheleii and Lyncestae. The cultural impact of the Corinthian colonies also reached the opposite"
- Rossignoli 2004, p. 122: "una principessa della stirpe illirica dei Lincesti" translation: "a princess of the Illyrian lineage of the Lyncestes"
- Silberman & Zehnacker 2015, p. 190: "Lyncestae, population à majorité illyrienne (Liv. XLV, 30; Strab. VII, 7, 8), est traversée par l'Erigon (Crna Reka) et correspond à la partie est du lac Prespa et au nord de l'antique Eordaia"
- ^ Hammond 2014, pp. 480, 482; Mallios 2011, p. 37; Gabriel 2010, p. 40; Iordanidis, Garcia-Guinea & Karamitrou-Mentessidi 2007, pp. 1797–1798; Lewis & Boardman 1994, pp. 723–724; Borza 1992, p. 74.
- ^ Winter 2006, p. 32: "Als griechische Stämme sind in dem Gebiet die Bottiaier, Oresten, Elimioten, Pelagoner und Lynkester überliefert"
- ^ a b c d King 2017, p. 5
- ^ a b Dzino 2014, p. 49
- ^ a b Lane Fox 2011, pp. 342, 610
- ^ a b Worthington 2008, p. 23–24.
- ^ a b c Worthington 2014, p. 29.
- ^ a b Hammond 1997, p. 44
- ^ a b Karamitrou-Mentesidi 2011, p. 96
- ^ Beekes 2009, p. 875
- ^ Ducat 1994, p. 69.
- ^ Garlan 2010, p. 106.
- ^ a b King 2017, p. 5.
- ^ Papazoglu 1988, p. 280
- ^ Morton 2017, p. 91.
- ^ Worthington 2008, p. 6
- ^ Samsaris 1989, pp. 24, 182.
- ^ Iordanidis, Garcia-Guinea & Karamitrou-Mentessidi 2007, pp. 1797–1798: "Scholars both earlier and modern believe it was manufactured by the northwestern Greek tribes, Herodotus's 'widely roaming nation' (1.56). He includes among these the Macedonians and the Dorians, who, he says, traveled from the south northwards and also settled in the Pindos."
- ^ King 2017, p. 6.
- ^ a b c Worthington 2014, p. 14.
- ^ Roisman 2011, p. 74.
- ^ a b c d Howe & Reames 2008, pp. 5–6: "Macedonia may rest in common ethnic and lingusitic affinities among most people of upper Macedonia. By the Bronze Age, Indo-Europeans prevailed in this region although there were exceptions, for example the Bryges. Differences in the closeness of affinity existed: the language of the Macedonians residing in lower and upper Macedonia appears to have come from the same limb of the Indo-European tree while that of more distant people—those of Thrace and Illyria—represented a different limb, albeit still Indo-European. In addition, the peoples of lower and upper Macedonia shared a common way of life in combining sedentary agriculture with transhumant pasturing. Geography furnished similar resources in the rivers and the riches of the mountains—wild animals, timber, and minerals. The history of settlement also created a common political life with personal leadership vested in a particular family. Recognition of these commonalities allowed the nominal confederacy of Elimeia, Orestis, Lynkestis, and Pelagonia with lower Macedonia during the kingship of Alexander I (498-454). It was fragile, as the assertion of independence by Lynkestis under its ruler Arrhabaios during the Peloponnesian War testifies (Thuc. 2.99.2). Renewed efforts to centralize the larger Macedonian area occurred during the reign of Archelaos (413-399) with centralization at Pella and fortification of the core that had been weakened by events in Greece following the end of the Peloponnesian War ... Incursion of the Illyrians in 360-59 may have been the main impetus for growing integration. Travelling to lower Macedonia had taken the Illyrian warriors through upper Macedonia to kingdoms west and north. Thus the Illyrians were a common enemy, distanced by language, as noted above, and also by way of life.
- ^ a b Butler, Margaret Erwin (2008). Of Swords and Strigils: Social Change in Ancient Macedon. Stanford University. p. 46.
- ^ Greenwalt 2011, pp. 281–282.
- ^ Butler, Margaret Erwin (2008). Of Swords and Strigils: Social Change in Ancient Macedon. Stanford University. p. 46.
the Lyncestae... in the north were more of less independent tribes, suffering the occasional Illyrian invasion: Illyrians remained a constant threat from the early years of the Argead line right up into Philip's reign.
- ^ Champion 2014, p. 2.
- ^ Worthington 2008, p. 6: "Upper Macedonia (west of Lower Macedonia), in which the Macedonian king had little influence, was an area of remote cantons inhabited mostly by different tribes, stretching up to the Illyrians. It comprised the areas of Tymphaea, Elimea, Orestis, Eordaea, Lyncus, Pelagonia and Derriopus." p. 13: "The Illyrians had dominated Upper Macedonia for centuries and had invaded the Lower areas frequently."
- ISBN 978-1-4683-1641-4.
The Illyrians normally constituted more of a threat to raid and pillage upper Macedonia, rather than to occupy and dominate the realm
- ^ Errington 2002, p. 19
- ^ Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, p. 318: "There is no evidence that any Argead was able to conquer L. before Philip II in 358."
- ^ Billows 1995, p. 3: "To the west, the highland cantons of Macedonia itself—Eordaia, Elimea, Tymphaia, Orestis, Lynkos and Pelagonia—presented a major problem in their lack of loyalty to the Argead monarchy and the Macedonian state it represented. This disloyalty stemmed partly from the presence of non-Macedonian elements in the populations of these cantons—Epeirotic (Molossian) elements in Tymphaia and Orestis, Illyrian elements in Lynkos and Pelagonia—and partly from the rivalry of local dynastic families towards the Argeads.10 A strong Macedonia required the full integration of these cantons into the Macedonian state, which could only be achieved by subduing the local dynasties and/or reconciling them to Argead suzerainty, and stimulating among the population a sense of belonging to the Macedonian state."
- ^ Thomas 2010, p. 74.
- ^ King 2024, p. 156.
- ^ Karamitrou-Mentesidi 2011, pp. 109–110
- ^ Hammond 1966, p. 244.
- ^ Cabanes 1988, pp. 92–93.
- ^ Herodotus, Histories, Book 5, chapter 92B
- ^ Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, p. 318: "Recognizing L.'s autonomy in the time of → Perdikkas II, → Thucydides terms the regional dynast the "basileus of the Makedonian Lynkestians" (4.83.1): he was not a subject of the Argeads [...] The first ruler of L. to appear in our sources is Arrhabaios, son of Bomeros"
- ISBN 978-1-4443-5163-7.
- ^ Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, p. 318.
- ^ Psoma 2011, p. 117
- ^ Roisman 2011, p. 152.
- ^ a b Roisman 2011, p. 156; Greenwalt 2011, p. 283; King 2017, pp. 55, 64.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 2020, p. 134; Psoma 2011, p. 121; Worthington 2008, p. 245.
- ^ King 2017, p. 55; Roisman 2011, p. 156
- ^ King 2017, p. 55.
- ^ Carney 2019, pp. 27–28; Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, pp. 87, 273; King 2017, pp. 57, 64; Carney & Müller 2020, p. 391; Müller 2021, p. 36; Palairet 2016, p. 29.
- ^ Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, p. 273; Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, p. 273; King 2017, pp. 57, 64.
- ^ Palairet 2016, p. 29.
- ^ a b Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, p. 273; Thomas 2008, pp. 70–71.
- ^ Worthington 2008, pp. 6, 13, 23–24.
- ^ Heckel, Heinrichs & Müller 2020, p. 138.
- ^ King 2024, pp. 156–157.
- ^ a b Worthington 2014, p. 39.
- ^ Lane Fox 2011, p. 343
- ^ a b c King 2017, p. 73
- ^ Mallios 2011, p. 37.
- S2CID 170892987.
- ^ Errington 1990, p. 242
- ^ Strabo. Geography, 7.7: "The Lyncestae were under Arrhabaeus, who was of the race of the Bacchiadae. Irra was his daughter, and his grand-daughter was Eurydice, the mother of Philip Amyntas."
- ^ Worthington 2014, p. 111.
- ^ Worthington 2014, p. 122.
- ^ Mallios 2011, p. 120.
- ^ Hammond 1982, p. 284.
- ^ Šašel Kos 2005, p. 110.
- ^ Salomies 2001, p. 263.
- ^ Hatzinikolaou 2007, p. 70
- ^ Hatzinikolaou 2007, p. 71
- ^ Hatzinikolaou 2007, p. 104
- ^ Hatzinikolaou 2007, p. 114
- ^ Hatzinikolaou 2007, p. 150
- ^ Hatzinikolaou 2007, p. 152
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Further reading
- Errington, Robert Malcolm (1990). A History of Macedonia. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06319-8.