Möngke Khan

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Möngke Khan
ᠮᠥᠩᠬᠡ ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ
4th
Diaoyu Fortress, Chongqing, Sichuan, Southern Song, China
Burial
Burkhan Khaldun, Khentii Province
Names
Mongolian:ᠮᠥᠩᠬᠡ Мөнх
Möngke
Posthumous name
Emperor Huansu (桓肅皇帝) (conferred in 1266)
Temple name
Xianzong (憲宗) (conferred in 1266)
HouseBorjigin
FatherTolui
MotherSorghaghtani Beki
ReligionTengrism
This article contains Mongolian script. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of text in Mongolian script.

Möngke Khan (also Möngke Khagan or Möngke;[a] 11 January 1209 – 11 August 1259) was the fourth khagan of the Mongol Empire, ruling from 1 July 1251, to 11 August 1259. He was the first Khagan from the Toluid line, and made significant reforms to improve the administration of the Empire during his reign. Under Möngke, the Mongols conquered Iraq and Syria as well as the kingdom of Dali (modern-day Yunnan).[2]

Appearance

According to William of Rubruck, Möngke Khan was a man of medium height.[3]

Early life

Möngke was born on 11 January 1209, as the eldest son of

shaman, claimed to have seen in the stars a great future for the child and bestowed on him the name Möngke, "eternal" in the Mongolian language. His uncle Ögedei Khan's childless queen Angqui raised him at her orda (nomadic palace).[4]
Ögedei instructed Persian scholar Idi-dan Muhammed to teach writing to Möngke.

On his way back home after the

Ili River.[5] Möngke was fifteen years old, and with his brother, Kublai, killed a rabbit and an antelope
. Their grandfather smeared fat from the killed animals onto their middle fingers following the Mongol tradition.

In 1230, Möngke went to war for the first time, following Ögedei Khan and his father Tolui into battle against the Jin dynasty. Tolui died in 1232, and Ögedei appointed Sorghaghtani head of the Toluid appanage. Following the Mongol custom, Möngke inherited at least one of his father's wives, Oghul-Khoimish of the Oirat clan. Möngke deeply loved her and gave special favor to her elder daughter, Shirin.[6]

Battle of Mohi (on 11 April 1241), in which Möngke might have participated.[7]

Kiev and offered the city surrender, but his envoys were killed.[9] After Batu's army joined Möngke's, they sacked the city. He also fought alongside Batu at the Battle of Mohi. In the summer of 1241, before the premature end of the campaign. Möngke returned home after his uncle Ögedei
recalled him in the winter of 1240–41. However, Ögedei died.

In 1246, Temüge, Genghis Khan's sole remaining brother, unsuccessfully tried to seize the throne without confirmation by a kurultai. The new Khagan Güyük entrusted the delicate task of trying the Odchigin ("keeper of the hearth" – a title given to both of Genghis' younger brothers) to Möngke and Orda Khan, the eldest brother of Batu. Güyük eventually died en route to the west in 1248 and Batu and Möngke emerged as main contenders. [citation needed]

Toluid revolution

Following his mother Sorghaghtani's advice, Möngke went to the Golden Horde to meet Batu, who was afflicted with gout.[citation needed] Batu decided to support his election and called a kurultai at Ala Qamaq. The leader of the families of Genghis Khan's brothers, and several important generals, came to the kurultai. Güyük's sons Naqu and Khoja attended briefly but then left. Despite vehement objections from Bala, Oghul Qaimish's scribe, the kurultai approved Möngke. Given its limited attendance and location, this kurultai was of questionable validity. Batu sent Möngke under the protection of his brothers, Berke and Tuqa-temur, and his son Sartaq to assemble a formal kurultai at Kodoe Aral in Mongolia. When Sorghaghtani and Berke organized a second kurultai on 1 July 1251, the assembled throng proclaimed Möngke the Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, and a few of the Ögedeid and Chagatayid princes, such as his cousin Kadan and the deposed khan Qara Hülegü, acknowledged the decision.

Shortly thereafter, Oghul's son Khoja and Ögedei's favorite grandson

descended from Genghis Khan who were involved in the plot were given some form of exile. The anti-Möngke plot of a Uyghur scribe, Bala, and the Idiqut Salindi (the monarch of the Uyghurs) was discovered and they were publicly executed. After his accession to the throne in 1251, Möngke announced that he would follow his ancestors but would not imitate the ways of other countries.[10] To increase his legitimacy, in 1252 he retroactively awarded his father the title of Ikh Khagan. Möngke shared the western part of the empire with his ally Batu Khan, ensuring the unity of the empire. Möngke's mother Sorghaghtani died in 1252.[citation needed
]

After the defeat of the Ögedeid and Chagataid families, Möngke eliminated their estates and assigned acquiescent family members new territories either in Turkestan or in northwest China. After the bloody purge, Möngke ordered a general

Hulagu supervisory powers in North China and Iran. Rumours spread that his brother Kublai founded a de facto independent ulus (district) and perhaps took for himself some of the tax receipts that should by rights be coming to Karakorum. In 1257 the Emperor sent two tax inspectors to audit Kublai's official. They found fault, listed 142 breaches of regulations, accused Chinese officials, and even had some executed; Kublai's office was abolished. Möngke's authority took over the collection of all taxes in Kublai's estates. As his Confucian and Buddhist advisers pointed out, Kublai first sent his wives to the court of Khagan and then appealed to Möngke in person. They embraced in tears and Möngke forgave his brother.[citation needed
]

Administrative ethos

The Mongol Empire during the reign of Möngke Khan (r.1251–59)
Mengeser Noyan

Möngke drafted his own decrees and kept close watch on their revision. Möngke forbade practices of extravagant costs of the Borjigin and non-Borjigid nobles. He also limited gifts to the princes, converting them into regular salaries, and made the merchants subject to taxes.[11] Möngke limited notorious abuses and sent imperial investigators to supervise the business of the merchants who were sponsored by the Mongols. He prohibited them from using the imperial relay stations, yam (route), and paizas, tablets that gave the bearer authority to demand goods and services from civilian populations.[11] With Güyük dead, many local officials no longer wanted to pay off the paper drafts used by Güyük. Möngke recognized that if he did not meet the financial obligations of Güyük, it would make merchants reluctant to continue business with the Mongols. Möngke paid out all drafts drawn by high ranking Mongol elites to these merchants. Ata-Malik Juvayni stated, "And from what book of history has it been read or heard...that a king paid the debt of another king?"[citation needed] The generals and princes (including his son) who allowed their troops to plunder civilians without authorization were repeatedly punished by Möngke Khan.[12] He used North Chinese, Muslim, and Uyghur officials. The Khagan's chief judge (darughachi) was the Jait-Jalayir official Menggeser [zh; ja], while the chief scribe was the Bulghai of the Keraites, who was a Christian. Nine of the 16 chief provincial officials of Möngke Khan were certainly Muslims. He reappointed Güyük's three officials: Mahmud Yalavach in China, Masud Beg in Turkestan, and Arghun Aqa of the Oirat in Iran. Möngke separated the position of the great judge at court from that of chief scribe.

"Struck by the Georgian King David in the name of his overlord Möngke, by the power of Heaven" (Persian, dated 1253)

In 1253, Möngke established the Department of Monetary affairs to control the issuance of paper money in order to eliminate the over-issue of the currency by Mongol and non-Mongol nobles since the reign of Great Khan Ögedei.[13] His authority established united measure based on sukhe or silver ingot, however, the Mongols allowed their foreign subjects to mint coins in the denominations and use weight they traditionally used.[14] During the reigns of Ögedei, Güyük, and Möngke, Mongol coinage increased with gold and silver coinage in Central Asia and copper and silver coins in the Caucasus, Iran, and Bolghar.[15]

In 1252–59, Möngke conducted a census of the Mongol Empire, including Iran,

taels of silver in China. Protests from the landlord classes reduced this relatively low rate to 6–7 dinars and taels. Some officials raised the top rate on the wealthy of 500 dinars. While the reform did not lighten the tax burden, it made the payments more predictable.[18]
Even so, the census and the regressive taxation it facilitated sparked popular riots and resistance in the western districts.

In 1259, the Georgian king,

Seljuk Sultan Kaykaus II near Ankara in 1256 and re-established Mongol authority over Eastern Turkey. By that time the Kashmiris had revolted, and Möngke appointed his generals, Sali and Takudar, to replace the court and a Buddhist master, Otochi, as darughachi to Kashmir. However, the Kashmiri king killed Otochi at Srinagar. Sali invaded again, killing the king, and put down the rebellion, after which the country remained subject to the Mongol Empire for many years.[20]

Religious policy

Möngke confirmed Güyük's appointment of

Taoist monk Qiu Chuji, who met his grandfather Genghis Khan in Afghanistan. Möngke made Li Zhichang chief of the Taoists. However, the Taoists had exploited their wealth and status by seizing Buddhist temples. Möngke demanded that the Taoists cease their denigration of Buddhism. Möngke ordered Kublai to end the clerical strife between the Taoists and Buddhists in his territory. Kublai called a conference of Taoist and Buddhist leaders in early 1258. At the conference, the Taoist claim was officially declared refuted, and Kublai forcibly converted their 237 temples to Buddhism and destroyed all copies of the fraudulent texts.[22]

Hethum I (seated) in the Mongol court of Karakorum, "receiving the homage of the Mongols".[23] "Histoire des Tartars", Hayton of Corycus, 1307.

Despite his conquests of the

Twelver community at Najaf
an autonomous tax-exempt ecclesiastical polity. Like his predecessors, he exempted clerics, monks, churches, mosques, monasteries, and doctors from taxation.

During Möngke's reign, Louis IX of France sent William of Rubruck as a diplomat seeking an alliance with the Mongols against the Muslims. By that time Möngke's khatun Oghul-Khoimish was already dead. After making the French envoy wait for many months, Möngke officially received William Rubruck on 24 May 1254. Rubruck informed him that he had come to spread the word of Jesus. Then he stayed to help the Christians in Karakorum and attended debates among rival religions organized by the Mongols. Möngke Khan summoned William Rubruck to send him back home in 1255. He told Rubruck:

"We Mongols believe in one God, by Whom we live and die," he then continued "Just as God gave different fingers to the hand so has He given different ways to men. To you God has given the Scriptures and you Christians do not observe them". He explained God had given the Mongols their shamans. Möngke offered Louis IX his cooperation but warned all Christians that "If, when you hear and understand the decree of the eternal God, you are unwilling to pay attention and believe it...and in this confidence you bring an army against us-we know what we can do".[24]

Ambassadors from the

Crusaders to follow his example and submit to Mongol overlordship, but he persuaded only his son-in-law Bohemond VI, ruler of the Principality of Antioch and County of Tripoli, who offered his own submission sometime in the 1250s.[27] The armies of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
and Bohemond VI would assist Möngke's army in the West soon.

Muslim rulers also presented their submission to Möngke in

Badr al'Din Lu'lu') and Mardin (Artuqids) offering their submission.[28]

Shamans played an important role in the court and sometimes influenced the war preparation.

Period of conquests

Capitulation of Goryeo

Main article: Mongol invasions of Korea

As Khagan, Möngke seemed to take the legacy of world conquest he had inherited much more seriously than had Güyük. His conquests were all directed at East Asia and the Middle East. In his first plans for additional conquests, Möngke chose Korea and the Dali Kingdom in Yunnan in 1252.

Möngke sent envoys to Goryeo, announcing his coronation in October 1251. He also demanded that King Gojong submit before him in person and to move his headquarters from Ganghwa Island to the mainland of Korea. But the Goryeo court refused to send the king because he was elderly and unable to travel so far. Möngke dispatched his envoys with specific tasks again. The envoys were well received by the Goryeo officials, but they criticized the Goryeo officials because their king did not follow his overlord Möngke's orders.[29] Möngke ordered prince Yeku to command the army against Korea. However, a Korean in the court of Möngke convinced them to begin their campaign in July 1253. Yeku, along with Amuqan, demanded that the Goryeo court surrender. The court refused but did not resist the Mongols and gathered the peasantry into mountain fortresses and islands. Working together with the Goryeo commanders who had joined the Mongols, Jalairtai Qorchi ravaged Korea. When one of Yeku's envoys arrived, Gojong personally met him at his new palace. The king Gojong sent his stepson as hostage to Mongolia. The Mongols agreed to a truce in January 1254.[citation needed]

Möngke realized that the hostage was not the blood prince of the Goryeo dynasty and blamed the Goryeo court for deceiving him. Möngke's commander Jalairtai devastated much of Goryeo and took 206,800 captives in 1254.

Liaodong
Peninsula, the Mongols formed Korean defectors into a colony of eventually 5,000 households.

In 1258 the king and the Ch'oe clan retainer Kim Chun staged a counter-coup, assassinated the head of the Ch'oe family, and sued for peace. When the Goryeo court sent the future king Wonjong of Goryeo as hostage to the Mongol court and promised to return to Gaegyeong, the Mongols withdrew from Korea.[32]

Dali, Vietnam and Tibet

Main articles:
Mongol conquest of Tibet

Möngke concerned himself more with the war in China, outflanking the

Indochina
, which allowed the Mongols to invade from the north, west, and south.

Möngke Khan dispatched

Dali and spared the residents despite the slaying of his ambassadors. The Mongols appointed King Duan Xingzhi as local ruler and stationed a pacification commissioner there.[34] After Kublai's departure, unrest broke out among the Black jang. By 1256, Uryankhadai, the son of Subutai
, had completely pacified Dali.

Mongol invasion of Vietnam
in 1257

After subjugating the Dali, Kublai sent a column south under

Southern Song, but the Tran Vietnamese imprisoned the Mongol envoys.[35] In 1257, a Mongol column under Uriyangkhadai invaded Vietnam (then known as Đại Việt) along with his son Aju and an army of 3,000 Mongols and 10,000 Yi tribesmen.[35] They routed the Vietnamese army and sacked the capital Thăng Long (renamed Hanoi in 1831). Uriyangkhadai executed its inhabitants for the murder of the envoys. After staying in Thăng Long for a while, the Mongols fell ill due to the unfamiliar climate. Realizing that it was time to drive the Mongols out, the Vietnamese launched a counter-attack and won the decisive battle of Dong Bo Dau. To avoid further war, the Tran accepted Mongol overlordship,[36] and Uriyangkhadai withdrew.[37] The Vietnamese king Trần Thái Tông paid tribute to Uriyangkhadai who had quickly evacuated Vietnam to escape malaria. The Trần dynasty accepted terms of vassalage and sent tributes to the administration of Möngke.[38]

To strengthen his control over Tibet, Möngke made Qoridai commander of the Mongol and Han troops in Tibet in 1251. In 1252–53

Damxung. The Central Tibetan monasteries submitted to the Mongols, and the Mongol princes divided them as their appanages
.

Conflicts with the Delhi Sultanate

Main article: Mongol invasions of India

In 1252–53

Indus.[40]

Conquest of the Middle East

See also:
Mongol invasions of Syria
Hulagu imprisons the Caliph Al-Musta'sim
among his treasures to starve him to death ("Le livre des merveilles", 15th century).
Mongols sacked Syrian cities in 1259–1260 and advanced to the Egyptian border.

When Möngke called a kurultai to prepare the next conquest in 1252/53, the

Malik Nasir Yusuf, sent envoys to Möngke Khan, who imposed darughachis (overseers) and a census on the Diyarbakır area.[41]

Möngke followed the schemes of his predecessor against the

Hülegü, with the highest priority being the conquest of the Nizari state and the Abbasid Caliphate.[42] In 1253, William of Rubruck, a Flemish priest sent on a mission to Karakorum in Mongolia, was struck by the security precautions there, reportedly in response to the more than forty assassins who had been sent by Imam Ala al-Din Muhammad there to assassinate Möngke;[43] it is possible that the assassination attempt was merely rumored.[42][44][45][46]

Möngke ordered the Jochid and Chagataid families to join Hulagu's expedition to Iran and strengthened the army with 1,000 siege engineers from China. Möngke's armies, led by his brother Hulagu, launched an attack on the Ismailis in Iran, crushing the last major resistance there by the end of 1256. The Hashashin Imam Rukn ad-Din requested permission to travel to Karakorum to meet with the Great Khan Möngke himself. Hulagu sent him on the long journey to Mongolia, but once the Imam arrived there, Möngke criticized his action and dismissed him. Rukn ad-Din was killed in uncertain circumstances.

For the

Caliph Al-Musta'sim refused to meet him in person, then Hulagu was to destroy Baghdad. Hulagu then advanced on Iraq, taking the capital at Baghdad in 1258. Hulagu sent Möngke some of his war booty with the news of his conquest of Baghdad. Möngke dispatched a Chinese messenger to congratulate him for his victory. Outraged by the attack on the caliphate, Malik Kamil revolted, killing his Mongol overseer. Hulagu's son Yoshumut invested Mayyafariqin and executed Malik Kamil. From there they moved into Syria in 1259, took Damascus and Aleppo, and reached the shores of the Mediterranean. Fearing the Mongol advance, the Ayyubid Sultan Malik Nasir Yusuf refused to see Hulagu and fled. However, the Mongols captured him at Gaza.[citation needed
]

South China

Main article: Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty

In 1241, Töregene Khatun had sent an envoy to make peace proposals and discuss with Zhao Yun (posthumously known as Emperor Lizong). The Song court arrested the envoy and imprisoned him in a fortress with his suite of seventy persons.[47] The envoy died, but his suite were detained until 1254. That year the Mongol army attacked to take Hejiu but failed. The Chinese freed the suite of the late envoy to show their desire for peace. Möngke concentrated all his attention on the conquest of the Song dynasty. Taking personal command late in the decade, he captured many of the fortified cities along the northern front.

In 1252, Möngke commissioned his younger brother Kublai and experienced general Uriyangkhadai to conquer the Dali Kingdom.[48][49] From the summer of 1253 to early 1254,[48] the campaigns were successful in conquering and pacifying the tribes, with Uriyangkhadai's military experience proving invaluable in battle.[49] After Kublai's return to northern China, Uriyangkhadai conquered neighboring tribes in Tibet before turning east towards the Trần dynasty by 1257.[49]

In October 1257, Möngke set out for South China, leaving his administration to his brother, Ariq Böke, in Karakorum with Alamdar as assistant, and fixed his camps near the Liu-pan mountains in May of the following year. He first attacked Song positions in Sichuan and took Paoning (modern-day Langzhong) in 1258.[50] Möngke forbade his army to plunder civilians. When his son accidentally destroyed a crop in the field of the Chinese peasants, Möngke punished him.

Meanwhile, Uriyangkhadai's forces invaded Vietnam with generals Trechecdu and Aju and captured the Trần dynasty capital of Thang Long in 1258.[51] While Chinese source material incorrectly stated that Uriyangkhadai withdrew from Vietnam after nine days due to poor climate, his forces did not leave until 1259.[52][53]

On 18 February 1259, Tsagaan Sar, the Mongol New Year feast was given by Möngke near the mountain Zhonggui.[54] At this feast his relative, Togan, a chief of the Jalairs, declared that South China was dangerous because of its climate, and that the Great Khagan should go northward for safety. Baritchi of the Erlat tribe called this advice cowardly and advised Möngke to remain with his army. These words pleased Möngke who wished to take the city nearby. The Song commander slew his envoy who had been sent to ask the city's submission.

In 1259, Uriyangkhadai's forces attacked Guangxi from Thang Long as part of a coordinated Mongol attack in 1259 with armies attacking in Sichuan under Möngke and other Mongol armies attacking in modern-day Shandong and Henan.[53][55]

Wives, concubines, and children

See also:
Family tree of Genghis Khan

Principal wives:[56]

  1. Qutuqtai Khatun (d. 1256, posthumously renamed Empress Zhenjie by Kublai) — daughter of Uladai Küregen son of Butu Küregen, from Ikeres clan of Khongirad
    • Baltu (d. 1258)
    • Ürüng-Tash (d. 1267)
      • Sarban (died young)
      • Öljei (died young)
      • Möngke Temür (only attested in Timurid sources)[57]
    • Princess Bayalun — married to Kurin Küregen (nephew of Uladai Küregen)
  2. Yesü'er Khatun (d. after 1260)
  3. Oghul Tutmish or Oghul Qaimish (daughter of Qutuqa Beki of Oirats)
    • Princess Shirin — married to Chochimtai Küregen (son of Taiju Küregen of Olkhunut)
    • Princess Bichige — married to Chochimtai Küregen (son of Taiju Küregen of Olkhunut)
  4. Chübei Khatun (d. 8 September 1259)

Concubines:

  1. Bayavchin (from Bayaut tribe)
  2. Quitani (from Eljigin clan of Khongirad)
    • Asutai — supported the election of Ariq Böke
      • Öljei
      • Hulachu
      • Hantum
      • Öljei Buqa

Death

Further information: Siege of Diaoyucheng, Toluid Civil War, and Division of the Mongol Empire

There is no consensus concerning Möngke Khan's death. His last recorded appearances were battle were at the Siege of Diaoyucheng near modern-day Chongqing; where it is also generally agreed he died. After his death, the Mongol armies were forced to withdraw from action. Chinese sources record Möngke as having been killed in battle during an assault on the fortress: a contemporary Song poem describes the "victory in Sichuan" where Möngke was killed by a crossbow arrow, which is corroborated in the writing of the Syriac monk Bar Hebraeus. The account in the History of Yuan, which was written during the Ming dynasty, relates that Möngke was fatally wounded instead by a stone projectile from either a cannon or trebuchet.[58]

Persian accounts largely originating from

Rashid al-Din claim that Möngke died of dysentery or cholera near the site of the siege on 11 August 1259[59][60][61] — the History of Yuan does not directly corroborate this, but it mentions a fatal disease outbreak in the Mongol camp during the campaign. In line with the lack of clarity in Mongol historiography concerning the deaths of khans, it has been speculated that possible that Mongols covered up the story by claiming that his death was due to illness, leading to the story in Persian accounts.[62]

Other accounts include those of the Armenian historian Hayton of Corycus's claims that Möngke was on a Mongol war ship that sank in the Chinese seas while the Mongols were besieging an island fortress.[63] Hayton's work is noted for including errors and amalgamating distinct events, so the account of Möngke's death could be a confused reference to the later Mongol invasions of Japan.[64]

A month after Möngke's death, his youngest wife Chubei died at the Liupanshan Mountains. Möngke's son Asutai conducted the corpse to Burkhan Khaldun,[65] Mongolia, where the late Khagan was buried near the graves of Genghis and Tolui.

Möngke's death in 1259 led to the four-year

late Khagans rested on nothing like the same foundations as that of Genghis Khan and his first three successors.[66][67]

When Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty in China in 1271, Möngke Khan was placed on the official record of the dynasty as Xianzong (simplified Chinese: 宪宗; traditional Chinese: 憲宗; pinyin: Xiànzōng).

Foreign influence in Karakorum

Silver Tree fountain in front of Tumen Amugulang Palace, 18th-century European imagination
The Model of the Khan Palace in Karakorum in the National History Museum of Mongolia in Ulaan-Baatar

In 1252–53, Flemish missionary and explorer William of Rubruck saw Hungarians, Russians, Germans, and a Parisian goldsmith, Guillaume Boucher, in Karakorum.[68] He even heard of Saxon miners in Dzungaria and other foreigners such as a woman from the Duchy of Lorraine mastered yurt-making.

In 1253, Möngke deported households from

Buddhist monasteries, mosques, and churches were newly built. Markets were in the Muslim sector and outside the four gates. Ethnic Han
farmers grew vegetables and grains outside the wall of Karakorum.

Notes

  1. ^ Mongolian: ᠮᠥᠩᠬᠡ Мөнх, Mönkh, pronounced [mɵŋx];[1] Chinese: 蒙哥; pinyin: Ménggē

References

  1. ^ "Мөнх хаан". mongoltoli.mn, mongolian state dictionary (in Mongolian). Retrieved 5 October 2017.
  2. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica "Möngke"
  3. ^ Rockhill 1967, p. 172.
  4. ISBN 978-0-8160-4671-3
    .
  5. ^ Jack Weatherford, The Secret History of the Mongol Queens, p. 135
  6. ^ Willem van Ruysbroeck, Peter Jackson, David Morgan, Hakluyt Society The mission of Friar William of Rubruck: his journey to the court of the Mongols, p. 168
  7. ^ John Man-Kublai Khan, p. 32
  8. ^ Leo de Hartog Genghis Khan, p. 168
  9. ^ Lawrence N. Langer Historical dictionary of medieval Russia, p. 131
  10. ISBN 978-0609809648
  11. ^
    S2CID 203044817
    .
  12. ^ C. P. Atwood Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 364
  13. ^ Jack Weatherford, Genghis Khan and the making of the modern world, p. 176
  14. ^ Jack Weatherford, Genghis Khan and the making of the modern world, pp. 175–76
  15. ^ Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 362
  16. ^ The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States 907–1368 (edited by Denis C. Twitchett, Herbert Franke, John King Fairbank, 1994), p. 401.
  17. ^ C. P. Atwood Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 78
  18. ^ Thomas T. Allsen Mongol Imperialism, p. 142
  19. ^ Kirakos Ganjakets'i', History of the Armenians, $63 and $64
  20. ^ André Wink-Al-Hind, The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, p. 208
  21. ^ J. Gordon Melton, Faiths Across Time: 5,000 Years of Religious History (2014), p. 844.
  22. ^ "Kokuan Sun-Yu chi and Southern Taoism during the Yuan period", in China under Mongol rule, pp. 212–253
  23. ^ "Hethoum I receiving the homage of the Tatars: during his voyage to Mongolia in 1254, Hethoum I was received with honours by the Mongol Khan who "ordered several of his noble subjects to honour and attend him"" in Le Royaume Armenien de Cilicie Claude Mutafian, p. 58, quoting Hayton of Corycus.
  24. ^ Jack Weatherford Genghis Khan, p. 175.
  25. ISBN 1-4021-9303-3
  26. ^ Runciman, p. 297.
  27. Hetoum
    , whose realm was contiguous with it, ruled Antioch. Accordingly, Antioch was drawn into the Mongolian-Armenian alliance".
  28. ISBN 978-0-415-96690-0
    . The Ayyubid ruler of Mayyafariqin, al-Kamil Muhammad, arrived at Mo ̈ngke's court in 1253, made his submission, and found there Muslim princes from Mosul and Mardin. It is clear, then, that years before Hulegu's arrival in the area, the majority of Muslim princes in Iraq, Jazira, and Syria had made some type of submission to the Mongols and that at least some were paying tribute.
  29. ^ J.Bor Mongol hiigeed Eurasiin diplomat shashtir, boyi II, p. 254.
  30. ^ John Man Kublai Khan, p. 208.
  31. ^ C. P. Atwood Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 319.
  32. ^ The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States 907–1368 (edited by Denis C. Twitchett, Herbert Franke, John King Fairbank, 1994), p. 436.
  33. ^ John Man Kublai Khan, p. 79.
  34. ^ C. P. Atwood Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongols, p. 613.
  35. ^ a b Christopher Pratt Atwood Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol empire, p. 579.
  36. ^ Tran, Trong Kim Viet Nam Su Luoc, p. 52.
  37. ^ Matthew Bennett, Peter The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient & Medieval Warfare, p. 332.
  38. ^ C. P. Atwood, Ibid, p. 579.
  39. ^ The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History, p. 111.
  40. ^ The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History, p. 112.
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  47. ^ Jeremiah Curtin The Mongols: A History, p. 327.
  48. ^ a b Ebrey et al., 240.
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  50. ^ René Grousset The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, p. 284.
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  57. ^ 松田/孝一; オチル; 宇野/伸浩; 松川/節; 中村/淳; 村岡/倫; 松井/太; 村岡/倫; 谷口/綾 (2013). モンゴル国現存モンゴル帝国・元朝碑文の研究 : ビチェース・プロジェクト成果報告書 [Study of the existing Mongol Empire and Yuan dynasty inscriptions in Mongolia] (in Japanese). 枚方: 大阪国際大学ビジネス学部松田孝一研究室.
  58. ^ Pow 2017, pp. 104–106.
  59. ^ George Lane Daily life in the Mongol empire, p. 9.
  60. ^ John Man Kublai Khan, p. 98.
  61. ^ Jack Weatherford Genghis Khan and the making of the modern world, p. 188
  62. ^ Pow 2017, pp. 102–106.
  63. ^ Henry Hoyle Howorth History of the Mongols: The Mongols Proper and the Kalmuks, p. 214.
  64. ^ Pow 2017, p. 102.
  65. ^ Christoph Baumer, John Hare Traces in the Desert: Journeys of Discovery Across Central Asia, p. 57.
  66. ^ Peter Jackson The Mongols and the West, p. 127.
  67. ^ Lubin, Nancy. "Rule of Timur". In Curtis.
  68. ^ Christopher Dawson Mission to Asia, p. 129.

Further reading

Möngke Khan
House of Borjigin (1206–1634)
Born: 1209 Died: 1259
Regnal titles
Preceded by
Oghul Qaimish (regent)
 Khagan-Emperor of the Mongol Empire
1251–1259 		Succeeded by
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