M25 motorway
M25 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
London Orbital Motorway | ||||
Route information | ||||
Part of E15 and E30[1] | ||||
Maintained by Connect Plus (contracted to | ||||
Anti-clockwise end | Dartford (Dartford Crossing southern approach) | |||
J3 → M20 motorway J5 → M26 motorway J7 → M23 motorway J12 → M3 motorway J15 → M4 motorway J16 → M40 motorway J21 → M1 motorway J23 → A1(M) motorway J27 → M11 motorway | ||||
Clockwise end | Thurrock (Dartford Crossing northern approach) | |||
Location | ||||
Country | ||||
Road network | ||||
|
The M25 or London Orbital Motorway is a major road encircling most of
In the 1944
Although the M25 was popular during construction, it quickly became apparent that there was insufficient traffic capacity. Because of the public inquiries, several junctions merely served local roads where office and retail developments were built, attracting even more traffic onto the M25 than it was designed for. The congestion has led to traffic management schemes that include
Description
Route
The M25 almost completely encircles
To the east of London the two ends of the M25 are joined to complete a loop by the non-motorway A282 Dartford Crossing of the
At junction 5, the clockwise carriageway of the M25 is routed off the main north–south
To the west, the M25 passes close to the edge of Heathrow Airport, and within sight of
In 2004, following an opinion poll, the London Assembly proposed aligning the Greater London boundary with the M25.[c] "Inside the M25" and "outside/beyond the M25" are colloquial, looser alternatives to "Greater London" sometimes used in haulage. The Communications Act 2003 explicitly uses the M25 as the boundary in requiring a proportion of television programmes to be made outside the London area; it states a requirement of "a suitable proportion of the programmes made in the United Kingdom" to be made "in the United Kingdom outside the M25 area", defined in Section 362 as "the area the outer boundary of which is represented by the London Orbital Motorway (M25)".[18][19]
Sections of the M25 form part of two long-distance E-roads, designated by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. The E15, which runs from Inverness to Algeciras,[20] follows the M25 and A282 clockwise from the A1(M) at junction 23 to the M20 at junction 3;[1] while the E30 Cork to Omsk route runs from the M4 at junction 15, clockwise to the A12 at junction 28.[1] The United Kingdom is formally part of the E-roads network but, unlike in other countries, these routes are not marked on any road signs.[21]
Features
The M25 was originally built mostly as a dual three-lane motorway.[22] Much of this has since been widened to dual four lanes for almost half, to a dual five-lanes section between junctions 12 and 14 and a dual six-lane section between junctions 14 and 15. Further widening is in progress of minor sections with plans for smart motorways in many others.[23]
Two
As is common with other motorways, the M25 is equipped with emergency ("SOS") telephones. These connect to two
When completed, the M25 only had
History
Plans
The idea of a general bypass around London was first proposed early in the 20th century. An outer orbital route around the capital had been suggested in 1913, and was re-examined as a motorway route in
Plans stalled because the route was planned to pass through several urban areas, which attracted criticism. The original D Ring through northwest London was intended to be a simple upgrade of streets. In 1951, Middlesex County Council planned a route for the orbital road through the county, passing through Eastcote and west of Bushey, connecting with the proposed M1 motorway, but it was rejected by the Ministry two years later. An alternative route via Harrow and Ealing was proposed, but this was abandoned after the council revealed the extent of property demolition required.[32]
In 1964, the London County Council announced the London Ringways plan, to consist of four concentric motorway rings around London.[33] The following year, the transport minister Barbara Castle announced that the D Ring would be essential to build. The component parts of what became the M25 came from Ringway 3 / M16 motorway in the north and Ringway 4 in the south.[32]
The Ringways plan was controversial owing to the destruction required for the inner two ring roads, (Ringway 1 and Ringway 2). Parts of Ringway 1 were constructed (including the West Cross Route), despite stiff opposition, before the overall plan was postponed in February 1972. In April 1973, the Greater London Council elections resulted in a Labour Party victory; the party then formally announced the cancellation of the Ringways running inside Greater London.[34] This did not affect the routes that would become the M25, because they were planned as central government projects from the outset.[35]
Construction
There was no individual public inquiry into the M25 as a whole.[36] Each section was presented to planning authorities in its own right and was individually justified, with 39 separate public inquiries relating to sections of the route. The need for the ministry to negotiate with local councils meant that more junctions with local traffic were built than originally proposed.[37] A report in 1981 showed that the M25 had the potential to attract office and retail development along its route, negating the proposed traffic improvements and making Central London a less desirable place to work.[38] None of the motorway was prevented from being built by objections at the public inquiries.[39] However, as a consequence of the backlash against the Ringways, and criticism at the public inquiries, the motorway was built with environmental concerns in mind. New features included additional earth mounds, cuttings and fences that reduced noise, and over two million trees and shrubs to hide the view of the road.[40]
Construction of parts of the two outer ring roads, Ringways 3 and 4, began in 1973. The first section, between South Mimms and Potters Bar in Hertfordshire (junctions 23 to 24) opened in September 1975.
The southern section of what became the M25 through Surrey and Kent was first conceived to be an east–west road south of London to relieve the A25, and running parallel to it, with its eastern end following the route of what is now the M26. It was originally proposed as an all-purpose route, but was upgraded to motorway standard in 1966. It was the first section of the route announced as M25 from the beginning. The first section from Godstone to Reigate (junctions 6 to 8) was first planned in 1966 and opened in February 1976.[41][42] A section of Ringway 3 south of the river between Dartford and Swanley (junctions 1 to 3) was constructed between May 1974 and April 1977.[42]
In 1975, following extensive opposition to some parts of Ringway 3 through Middlesex and South London, the transport minister John Gilbert announced that the north section of Ringway 3 already planned would be combined with the southern section of Ringway 4, forming a single orbital motorway to be known as the M25, and the M16 designation was dropped. This scheme required two additional sections to join what were two different schemes, from Swanley to Sevenoaks in the south-east and Hunton Bridge to Potters Bar in the north-west. The section of Ringway 3 west of South Mimms anti-clockwise around London to Swanley in Kent was cancelled.[36]
The section from Potters Bar to the
The most controversial section of the M25 was that between Swanley and Sevenoaks (junctions 3 to 5) in Kent across the
The section from the M40 motorway to the 1970s North Orbital Road construction (junctions 16 to 17) opened in January 1985.[46] The route under the Chalfont Viaduct meant the motorway was restricted to a width of three lanes in each direction.[48]
The Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, officially opened the M25 on 29 October 1986, with a ceremony in the section between junctions 22 to 23 (London Colney and South Mimms).[16] To avoid the threat of road protesters, the ceremony was held a quarter of a mile from the nearest bridge.[49] The total estimated cost of the motorway was around £1 billion. It required 2 million tonnes (2.2 million short tons) of concrete, 2.5 million tonnes (2.8 million short tons) of asphalt and involved the removal of 49 million cubic metres (1,700 million cubic feet) of spoil. Upon completion, it was the longest orbital motorway in the world at 117 miles (188 km).[46][a] At the opening ceremony, Thatcher announced that 98 miles (158 km) had been constructed while the Conservative Party were in office, calling it "a splendid achievement for Britain".[49] A 58-page brochure was published, commemorating the completion of the motorway.[50]
Operational history
The M25 was initially popular with the public. In the 1987 general election, the Conservatives won in every constituency that the motorway passed through, in particular gaining Thurrock from Labour. Coach tours were organised for a trip around the new road. However, it quickly became apparent that the M25 suffered from chronic congestion. A report in The Economist said it "had taken 70 years to plan [the motorway], 12 to build it and just one to find it was inadequate". Thatcher rebuked the negative response, calling it "carping and criticism".[51]
Traffic levels quickly exceeded the maximum design capacity. Two months before it opened, the government admitted that the three-lane section between junctions 11 and 13 was inadequate and that it would have to be widened to four.[51] In 1990, the Secretary of State for Transport announced plans to widen the whole of the M25 to four lanes.[52] By 1993 the motorway, designed for a maximum of 88,000 vehicles per day, was carrying 200,000.[53] At that time, the M25 carried 15% of UK motorway traffic and there were plans to add six lanes to the section from junctions 12 to 15, as well as widening the rest of the motorway to four lanes.[54]
In parts, particularly the western third, that plan went ahead. Again, however, plans to widen further sections to eight lanes (four each way) were scaled back in 2009 in response to rising costs. The plans were reinstated in the agreed
In June 1992, the
In 1995, a contract was awarded to widen the section between junctions 8 and 10 from six to eight lanes at a cost of £93.4 million,
After Labour won the 1997 election, the road budget was cut from £6 billion to £1.4 billion.[59] However, the DfT announced new proposals to widen the section between junction 12 (M3) and junction 15 (M4) to 12 lanes. At the Heathrow Terminal 5 public inquiry, a Highways Agency official said that the widening was needed to accommodate traffic to the proposed new terminal, but the transport minister said that no such evidence had been given.[62] Environmental groups objected to the decision to go ahead with a scheme to create the widest motorways in the UK, without holding a public inquiry.[63] Friends of the Earth claimed the real reason for the widening was to support Terminal 5.[59] The decision was again deferred. A ten-lane scheme was announced in 1998,[64] and the £148 million 'M25 Jct 12 to 15 Widening' contract was awarded to Balfour Beatty in 2003.[65] The scheme was completed in 2005, with dual-five lanes between junctions 12 and 14 and dual-six lanes from junctions 14 to 15.[66]
In 2007, junction 25 (A10/Waltham Cross) was remodelled to increase capacity. The nearby Holmesdale Tunnel was widened to three lanes in an easterly direction, and an additional left-turn lane added from the A10 onto the motorway. The total cost was £75 million.[67][68]
Work to widen the exit slip-roads in both directions at junction 28 (A12 / A1023) was completed in 2008. That was designed to reduce the amount of traffic queuing on the slip roads at busy periods, particularly traffic from the clockwise M25 joining the northbound A12.[69] In 2018, a new scheme was proposed, because the junction had reached capacity, accommodating over 7,500 vehicles per hour. The scheme involved building a two-lane link road between the M25 and the A12. The work was expected to be completed around 2021/22.[70]
Widening
In 2006, the Highways Agency proposed widening 63 miles (101 km) of the M25 from six to eight lanes, between junctions 5 and 6, and 16 to 30, as part of a Design, Build, Finance and Operate (DBFO) project.[71] A shortlist of contractors was announced in October 2006 for the project, which was expected to cost £4.5 billion.[72] Contractors were asked to resubmit their bids in January 2008,[73] and in June 2009 the new transport minister indicated that the cost had risen to £5.5 billion and the benefit to cost ratio had dropped considerably.[74] In January 2009 the government announced that plans to widen the sections from junctions 5 to 7 and 23 to 27 had been 'scrapped' and that hard shoulder running would be introduced instead. However, widening to four lanes was reinstated in the 2013–14 Highways Agency Business Plan.[23][75]
In 2009, a £6.2 billion M25 DBFO private finance initiative contract[76] was awarded to Connect Plus to widen the sections between junctions 16 to 23 and 27 to 30, and maintain the M25 and the Dartford Crossing for a 30-year period.[77]
Work to widen the section between junctions 16 (M40) and 23 (A1(M)) to dual four lanes[78] started in July 2009 at an estimated cost of £580 million.[79] The junction 16 to 21 (M1) section was completed by July 2011 and the junction 21 to 23 by June 2012.[80] Works to widen the junctions 27 (M11) to 30 (A13) section to dual four lanes also started in July 2009. The junction 27 to 28 (A12) section was completed in July 2010,[81] and the junction 28 to 29 (A127) in June 2011, and finally the junction 29 to 30 (A13) section opened in May 2012.[82]
Work to introduce smart motorway technology and permanent hard shoulder running on two sections of the M25 began in 2013. The first section between junctions 5 (A21/M26) and 7 (M23) started construction in May 2013 with the scheme being completed and opened in April 2014.[83] The second section, between junctions 23 (A1/A1(M)) and 27 (M11), began construction in February 2013 and was completed and opened in November 2014.[84]
In December 2016, Highways England completed the capacity project at junction 30 (Thurrock) as part of the Thames Gateway Delivery Plan.[85] The £100 million scheme included widening the M25 to four lanes, adding additional link roads, and improvements to drainage.[86] The plans to expand junction 10, where the M25 meets the A3, have resulted in concerns about the amount of woodland that would be required.[87]
In March 2024, National Highways announced the first all-day closure of the M25 in its operational history. The motorway was closed between junctions 10 and 11 from 15–18 March in order to remove a bridleway bridge. Several other lengthy closures are planned.[88][89]
Traffic
The M25 is one of Europe's busiest motorways. In 2003, a maximum of 196,000 vehicles a day were recorded just south of Heathrow, between junctions 13 and 14.[90] The stretch between the nearby junctions 14 and 15 consistently records the highest daily traffic counts on the British strategic road network, with the average flow in 2018 being 219,492 vehicles (lower than the record peak measured in 2014 of 262,842).[91]
Traffic on the M25 is monitored by Connect Plus Services on behalf of National Highways. The company operates a series of transportable CCTV cameras that can be easily moved into congestion hotspots, allowing operators to have a clear view of the motorway and so assess what might be done to tackle particular areas of congestion.[92] Prior to its liquidation in 2018, Carillion was subcontracted to manage traffic on the M25, delivering live alerts from body-worn cameras via 3G, 4G and Wi-Fi.[93]
Since 1995, sections of the M25 have been equipped with variable speed limits, which slow traffic in the event of congestion or an obstruction, and help manage the traffic flow.[94] The scheme was originally trialled between junctions 10 and 16, and was made a permanent fixture in 1997.[95]
The Dartford Crossing is the only fixed vehicle crossing of the Thames east of Greater London.[96] It is also the busiest crossing in the United Kingdom, and consequently puts pressure on M25 traffic.[97] Users of the crossing do not pay a toll, but rather a congestion charge. The signs at the crossing are the same as those deployed over the London congestion charge zone.[98]
In 2009, the Department for Transport published options for a new Lower Thames Crossing to add capacity to the Dartford Crossing, or create a new road and crossing linking to the M2 and M20 motorways.[99] Plans for that stalled, and were cancelled in 2013 by the Mayor of London, Boris Johnson, being replaced by a proposed Gallions Reach Crossing. Initially seen as a straight ferry replacement for the Woolwich Ferry, it was later mooted as a bridge or tunnel.[100][101] By 2019, the plans had changed, with the Docklands Light Railway to be extended to Thamesmead instead.[102]
Incidents
On 11 December 1984, nine people died and ten were injured in a multiple-vehicle collision between junctions 5 and 6. Twenty-six vehicles were involved when dense fog descended suddenly.[103]
On 16 December 1988, several vehicles were stolen and used as getaway for acts of murder and robbery, using the M25 to quickly move between targets. The M25 Three, including Raphael Rowe, were tried and sentenced to life imprisonment in 1990. Their convictions were overturned in 2000 and Rowe, who studied journalism while in prison, became an investigative journalist for the BBC.[104][105][106]
In 1996, Kenneth Noye murdered Stephen Cameron in a road rage incident while stopped at traffic lights on an M25 junction in Kent. He was convicted in 2000 and sentenced to life imprisonment.[107] He was released in June 2019.[108][109]
In November 2014, during overnight roadworks, a 16-foot (4.9 m) piece of road surface near junction 9 at Leatherhead failed to set correctly due to rain. This created a 1-foot (0.30 m) pothole in the road and caused a 12-mile (19 km) tailback. The Minister for Transport John Hayes criticised the work and the resulting traffic problems.[110]
The M25 has had problems with animals and birds on the carriageway. In 2009, the Highways Agency reported that they had been called out several times a week to remove a swan from the motorway around junction 13.[111] There have been several crashes resulting in horses escaping their horseboxes onto the carriageway.[112][113][114]
Racing
The motorway has attracted unofficial, and illegal,
Insulate Britain protests
In 2021, several sections of the M25 were disrupted after the home energy and insulation campaign group
On 29 October, two days before the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference, Insulate Britain protests blocked traffic from junctions 21 to 22 in Hertfordshire and 28 to 29 in Essex. 19 arrests were made.[122]
Cultural references
The M25 is a form of social control to ensure disruptive elements in society are neutralised by keeping a significant proportion of them in continual motion.
The M25 and the Dartford Crossing are known for frequent traffic jams. This was noticed before the entire road had been completed; at the official opening ceremony Margaret Thatcher complained about "those who carp and criticise". The jams have inspired derogatory names, such as "Britain's Biggest Car Park"[124] and songs (e.g., Chris Rea's "The Road to Hell").[125] Nevertheless, coach tours around the M25 have continued to run into the 21st century.[126]
The M25 plays a role in the comedy-fantasy novel
The M25 enjoyed a more positive reputation among ravers in the late 1980s, when this new orbital motorway became a popular route to the parties that took place around the outskirts of London.[130] Its use for these raves inspired the name of the electronic duo Orbital.[16]
Iain Sinclair's 2002 book and film London Orbital is based on a year-long journey around the M25 on foot.[131]
A piece of
Junctions and services
Data from
The M25 has been criticised for having too many junctions; 14 of them serve only local roads.
The M25 originally opened without any service areas. The first, at
A282 (Dartford Crossing) | |||||
miles | km[138][d] | Clockwise exits (A carriageway)[138] | Junction | Anti-clockwise exits (B carriageway) | Opening date[46] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.0 | 0.0 | Dartford Crossing South (Queen Elizabeth II Bridge) |
River Thames |
Dartford Crossing North (Dartford Tunnels) |
November 1963 (west tunnel) May 1980 (east tunnel) October 1991 (bridge) |
Entering Kent | Entering Essex | ||||
3.5 | 5.7 | Bluewater A206
|
J1A[e] | Swanscombe, Erith A206 | September 1986 |
4.7 | 7.5 | A225
|
J1B | No Exit | September 1986 |
M25 | |||||
5.5 | 8.8 | London (SE & C), Bexleyheath Non Motorway Traffic |
J2 | September 1986 (northbound) April 1977 (southbound) | |
8.7 | 14.0 | Dover, Channel Tunnel, Maidstone M20 London (SE), Swanley A20 |
J3 | London (SE & C), Lewisham A20 Channel Tunnel, Maidstone M20 |
April 1977 (northbound) February 1986 (southbound) |
12.2 | 19.6 | Bromley A224
|
J4 | London (SE), Bromley A21 Orpington A224 |
February 1986 |
16.3 16.4 |
26.2 26.4 |
A21
|
J5 | Dover, Channel Tunnel, Maidstone M26 (M20) Sevenoaks, Hastings A21 |
July 1980 |
Entering Surrey | Entering Kent | ||||
21.0 | 33.8 | Clacket Lane services | Services | Clacket Lane services | July 1993 |
25.8 | 41.6 | Eastbourne, Godstone, Caterham A22 Redhill, Westerham (A25) |
J6 | Eastbourne, Godstone, Caterham A22 Westerham (A25) |
November 1979 (eastbound) February 1976 (westbound) |
28.6 | 46.0 | Brighton, Crawley Gatwick Croydon M23 |
J7 | Croydon Brighton, Gatwick M23 |
February 1976 |
31.9 | 51.4 | Reigate, Sutton A217 Kingston (A240) |
J8 | Reigate, Sutton A217 Redhill (A25) |
February 1976 (eastbound) October 1985 (westbound) |
38.5 39.5 |
62.0 63.5 |
A24 )
|
J9 | Leatherhead A243 Dorking (A24) |
October 1985 |
42.6 43.2 |
68.6 69.5 |
Cobham services
|
Services | Cobham services
|
September 2012 |
45.0 | 72.4 | Portsmouth, Guildford, London (SW & C) A3 |
J10 | London (SW), Kingston, Guildford, Portsmouth A3 |
October 1985 (eastbound) December 1983 (westbound) |
49.8 | 80.2 | A317
|
J11 | Chertsey A317 Woking A320 |
December 1983 (southbound) October 1980 (northbound) |
52.1 | 83.8 | Basingstoke, Southampton Richmond M3 |
J12 | The SOUTH WEST, Southampton London (SW & C), Richmond M3 |
October 1980 (southbound) December 1976 (northbound) |
Entering Berkshire | Entering Surrey | ||||
Entering Surrey | Entering Berkshire | ||||
55.2 | 88.8 | London (W), Hounslow, Staines A30 | J13 | London (W), Hounslow, Staines A30 | November 1981 (southbound) August 1982 (northbound) |
Entering Greater London | Entering Surrey | ||||
57.0 | 91.8 | A3113
|
J14 | Heathrow A3113
|
August 1982 (southbound) September 1985 (northbound) |
Entering Buckinghamshire | Entering Greater London | ||||
59.0 | 95.0 | The WEST, Reading, Slough London (W & C), Heathrow (Terminals 1, 2 & 3) M4 |
J15 | London (W), Heathrow (Terminals 1, 2 & 3) The WEST, Slough, Reading M4 |
September 1985 |
63.8 | 102.6 | Birmingham, Oxford Uxbridge, London (W) M40 |
J16 | Uxbridge, London (W & C) Birmingham, Oxford M40 |
September 1985 (southbound) January 1985 (northbound) |
Entering Hertfordshire | Entering Buckinghamshire | ||||
68.7 | 110.5 | Rickmansworth, Maple Cross A412 | J17 | Maple Cross A412 | January 1985 (southbound) February 1976 (northbound) |
69.9 | 112.5 | Amersham, Chorleywood A404 | J18 | Amersham, Chorleywood, Rickmansworth A404 | February 1976 |
71.5 | 116.4 | Watford A41 | J19 | No Exit | September 1976 |
73.5 | 118.2 | Hemel Hempstead, Aylesbury A41 | J20 | Hemel Hempstead, Aylesbury, Watford A41 | August 1986 |
76.3 | 122.8 | The NORTH |
J21 | The NORTH Luton M1 |
August 1986 |
76.9 | 123.7 | (M1 South) St Albans, London (NW & C) A405 |
J21A | (M1 South) St Albans, London (NW & C), Watford A405 |
August 1986 |
80.6 | 129.7 | St Albans A1081 | J22 | St Albans A1081 | August 1986 |
83.3 | 134.0 | Hatfield A1(M) London (N & C) A1 Barnet A1081 South Mimms services |
J23 | London (N & C) A1 Barnet A1081 Hatfield A1(M) South Mimms services |
August 1986 (westbound) September 1975 (eastbound) |
85.9 | 138.2 | A111
|
J24 | Potters Bar A111 | September 1975 (westbound) June 1981 (eastbound) |
Entering Greater London | Entering Hertfordshire | ||||
91.4 | 147.1 | J25 | London (N & C) Enfield, Hertford A10 |
June 1981 (westbound) January 1984 (eastbound) | |
Entering Essex | Entering Greater London | ||||
94.9 | 152.7 | J26 | Waltham Abbey, Loughton A121 | January 1984 | |
99.2 | 159.7 | J27 | London (NE & C) Cambridge, Harlow, Stansted M11 |
January 1984 (westbound) April 1983 (eastbound) | |
Entering Greater London | Entering Essex | ||||
107.1 | 172.4 | Chelmsford, London (E & C), Romford A12 Brentwood A1023 |
J28 | Chelmsford A12 Brentwood A1023 |
April 1983 |
Entering Essex | Entering Greater London | ||||
Entering Greater London | Entering Essex | 54°10′12″N 2°44′15″W / 54.17005°N 2.73748°W | |||
109.9 | 176.8 | J29 | London (E & C), , Basildon A127 | April 1983 (northbound) December 1982 (southbound) | |
Entering Essex | Entering Greater London | ||||
115.2 | 185.4 | J30 | London (E & C), Tilbury, Thurrock, Lakeside A13 Thurrock services Non Motorway Traffic |
December 1982 | |
A282 (Dartford Crossing) | |||||
115.9 | 186.6 | No Exit | J31 | A126 )Thurrock services |
December 1982 |
Dartford Crossing South (Queen Elizabeth II Bridge) |
River Thames |
Dartford Crossing North (Dartford Tunnels) |
November 1963 (west tunnel) May 1980 (east tunnel) October 1991 (bridge) | ||
Entering Kent | Entering Essex | ||||
Notes
| |||||
1.000 mi = 1.609 km; 1.000 km = 0.621 mi |
References
Explanatory notes
- ^ a b Since the completion of the M25, the Berliner Ring has been completed to run at a slightly longer 196 km (122 mi)[146]
- ^ Pedestrians and cyclists cannot directly use the Dartford Crossing, but a shuttle service is available for the latter.[9]
- ^ This move would be bound to be resisted by the communities affected, including Watford, Loughton and Epsom.[17]
- ^ The table gives details of each junction, including the roads interchanged and the destinations that are signed from the motorway on the blue advance direction signs. Figures in kilometres are from the driver location signs; figures in miles are derived from them.
- ^ Junctions 1A and 1B are part of the A282, though they use the M25's numbering scheme.[145]
Citations
- ^ a b c AA Publishing (2019). Big Road Atlas Europe 2020.
- ^ "Map referred to in the London Borough of Havering (Electoral Changes) Order 2021" (PDF). The Local Government Boundary Commission for England. 2021. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 April 2022. Retrieved 27 October 2022.
- ^ a b "Heathrow Villages ward map" (PDF). London Borough of Hillingdon. 2022. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 May 2022. Retrieved 27 October 2022.
- ^ a b Hamilton 2015, p. 24.
- ^ "Traffic Signs Manual Chapter 2 : Primary Routes" (PDF). Department of Transport. Retrieved 14 May 2019.
- AA Motoring Trust. September 2004. p. 3. Archived from the original(PDF) on 8 January 2017. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
- ^ "Thames Bridges Heights". Port of London Authority. Retrieved 7 August 2016.
- ISBN 978-1-861-89346-8.
- ^ "Get across the Dartford crossing by bike". HM Government. Retrieved 13 May 2019.
- ^ "Walk on to cross the water". Kent Online. 23 August 2013. Retrieved 14 May 2019.
- ^ "M25 in South East Region". The Motorway Archive. 2009. (Select "M25" from list of motorways, then "M25 interchanges, tunnels and bridges"). Retrieved 18 April 2013.
- ^ a b c d "10 reasons why a lap of the M25 is Britain's ultimate road trip". The Daily Telegraph. 29 October 2016. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 28 May 2019.
- ^ a b c Barkham, Patrick (21 February 2012). "Coach tour of the M25 – a great day out". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 May 2019.
- ^ Hamilton 2015, p. 43.
- ^ Calder, Simon (25 September 2010). "Trail of the unexpected: The M25". The Independent. Retrieved 28 May 2019.
- ^ a b c d "The M25 : We're on the road to nowhere". The Independent. 17 October 2006. Retrieved 11 May 2019.
- ^ "Poll says M25 is London's "natural boundary"". London Assembly. 2 March 2004. Archived from the original on 9 October 2008.
- ^ "Communications Act 2003". The National Archives. 2003. Retrieved 5 September 2011.
- ^ "Channel 4 Licence" (PDF). Ofcom. Retrieved 20 May 2019.
- ^ United Nations Economic Commission for Europe 2016, p. 11.
- ^ Department for Transport (January 2011). "Road Network Policy Consultation" (PDF). pp. 13–14.
- ^ Hamilton 2015, p. 25.
- ^ a b "Business Plan 2013–14" (PDF). Highways Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 May 2013.
- Highways Agency. Archived from the originalon 3 March 2010. Retrieved 14 August 2010.
- ^ a b "Cobham M25 service station opened". BBC News. 13 September 2012. Retrieved 13 September 2012.
- ^ Ridley, Nicholas (6 February 1986). "Roads (Lighting and Signs)". Hansard. Retrieved 13 May 2019.
- ^ a b c Hamilton 2015, p. 26.
- ^ Bramley 1946, p. 146.
- ^ Smith 2001, p. 148.
- ^ John Henry Forshaw, Sir Patrick Abercrombie (1943). County of London plan. London County Council. p. 13.
- ^ Hamilton 2015, p. 19.
- ^ a b c Asher 2018, p. 113.
- ^ Asher 2018, p. 43,112.
- ^ Asher 2018, p. 103.
- ^ Asher 2018, p. 111.
- ^ a b Asher 2018, p. 116.
- ^ a b Asher 2018, p. 117.
- ^ Asher 2018, p. 118.
- ^ a b Hamilton 2015, p. 11.
- ^ Moran 2009, pp. 208–209.
- ^ a b c Asher 2018, p. 115.
- ^ a b c d e "M25 : London Orbital Motorway – Dates". UK Motorway Archive. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020.
- ^ Calder, Simon (25 September 2010). "How London got its Ring Road". The Independent. Retrieved 11 May 2019.
- ^ "No. 47053". The London Gazette. 28 October 1976. pp. 14527–14528.
- ^ Asher 2018, p. 119.
- ^ a b c d Asher 2018, p. 121.
- ^ Asher 2018, p. 120.
- ^ "M25: The best of Britain's most hated motorway". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 11 May 2019.
- ^ a b Moran 2009, p. 209.
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General and cited sources
- Asher, Wayne (2018). Rings Around London: Orbital motorways and the battle for homes before roads. Capital History. ISBN 978-1854144218.
- Baldwin, Peter; Bridle, Ron; Baldwin, Robert; Porter, John (2002). The Motorway Achievement, Volume 1. Thomas Telford. ISBN 978-0-727-73196-8.
- Bramley, J. F. (1946). Roads for Britain: a digest of plans of future highways (2nd ed.). Staples Press.
- Hamilton, Ray (2015). M25: A Circular Tour of the London Orbital. Summersdale Publishers. ISBN 978-1-783-72656-1.
- Moran, Joe (2005). Reading the Everyday. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-31709-2.
- Moran, Joe (2009). On Roads: A Hidden History. Profile Books. ISBN 978-1-846-68052-6.
- Smith, Denis (2001). London and the Thames Valley. Thomas Telford. ISBN 978-0-727-72876-0.
- United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (1 November 2016). "ECE/TRANS/SC.1/2016/3/Rev.1: European Agreement on Main International Traffic Arteries" (PDF).
Further reading
- ISBN 1-86207-547-6.
- ISBN 1-873429-90-8.
External links
- Highways Agency – Roadworks
- Highways Agency – Current Traffic Information
- Highways Agency – Dartford – Thurrock River Crossing
- The Motorway Archive's M25 page
- CBRD M25 Motorway Database
- CBRD M25 Opening Booklet
- Wonders of the M25 – Londonist