Ma'n dynasty
Ma'n dynasty بَنُو مَعْن (Banū Maʿn) | |
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Chouf in Mount Lebanon , part of the:
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Founded |
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Founder |
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Final ruler | Ahmed ibn Mulhim ibn Yunus fl. 1658–1697 |
Members |
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Dissolution | 1697 |
Historical Arab states and dynasties |
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The Ma'n dynasty (
Two years following the advent of Ottoman rule in the Syrian region in 1516, three chiefs of the Ma'n dynasty were imprisoned for rebellion by the Damascus Eyalet governor Janbirdi al-Ghazali, but released by Sultan Selim I. The Ma'ns and their Druze coreligionists in the Chouf were continually targeted in punitive campaigns by the Ottomans related to their evasion and defiance of government tax collectors and their stockpiling of illegal firearms, which were often superior to those of the government troops. The particularly destructive 1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze prompted the Ma'nid emir Qurqumaz ibn Yunis to go into hiding in the neighboring Kisrawan, where he died the following year.
His son,
A surviving son of Yunus, Mulhim Ma'n defeated the family's government-backed Druze rival,
History
Origins
According to the historian
The
The first Ma'nid "whose historicity is beyond question" was
Early interactions with the Ottomans
Following the Ottoman conquest, the Chouf was administratively divided into three
The three Ma'nids likely shared the chieftainship of the Chouf, though the length and nature of the arrangement is not known.
In 1523, forty-three villages in Shuf Sulayman Ibn Ma'n, including Baruk, were burned by the forces of the Damascus governor
Following the death of Yunus, the Druze moved to import from the Venetians long-range muskets superior to those employed by the Ottomans.
Era of Fakhr al-Din II
Control of Sidon-Beirut and Safed sanjaks
Around 1590 Qurqumaz was succeeded by his eldest son Fakhr al-Din II as the muqaddam of all or part of the Chouf.[35][36] Unlike his Ma'nid predecessors, Fakhr al-Din cooperated with the Ottomans, who, though able to suppress Mount Lebanon's local chiefs with massive force, were unable to pacify the region in the long term without local support.[37] When the veteran general Murad Pasha was appointed beylerbey of Damascus, Fakhr al-Din hosted and gave him expensive gifts upon his arrival to Sidon in September 1593.[38][39] Murad Pasha reciprocated by appointing him the sanjak-bey (district governor, called amir liwa in Arabic sources) of Sidon-Beirut in December.[37] The Ottomans' preoccupation with the wars against Safavid Iran (1578–1590; 1603–1618) and the war with Hapsburg Austria afforded Fakhr al-Din the space to consolidate and expand his semi-autonomous power.[40]
In July 1602,
In 1606, Fakhr al-Din made common cause with the Kurdish rebel Ali Janbulad of Aleppo against his local rival Yusuf Sayfa of Tripoli; the latter had been invested as commander-in-chief of the Ottoman armies in the Levant to suppress Janbulad.[45] Fakhr al-Din may have been motivated by his ambitions of regional autonomy,[46] defense of his territory from Sayfa, or expanding his control to Beirut and Keserwan, both held by Sayfa.[47] The rebel allies besieged Sayfa in Damascus, eventually forcing his flight.[48] In the course of the fighting, Fakhr al-Din took over the Keserwan.[49] When Janbulad was defeated by the Ottomans, Fakhr al-Din appeased Murad Pasha, who had since become grand vizier, with substantial sums of cash and goods.[47][50] The high amount is an indicator of the Ma'ns' wealth.[50] Fakhr al-Din was kept as sanjak-bey of Safed, his son Ali was appointed as sanjak-bey of Sidon-Beirut and the Ma'ns' control of Keserwan was recognized by the Porte.[51]
Interregnum of Yunus and Ali
Part of a series on
Druze |
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Fakhr al-Din lost imperial favor with the death of Murad Pasha in July 1611 and the succession of
In Fakhr al-Din's absence his younger brother Yunus acted as head of the family in the Chouf. The Ma'ns' sekbans stationed in their headquarter village of Deir al-Qamar collaborated with Ahmed Pasha, prompting Yunus to abandon the village for Baakline.
Although the Ma'ns' position was severely weakened, in 1615 political circumstances changed in their favor with Nasuh Pasha being executed, Ahmed Pasha being replaced by a friendly governor, the Sidon Eyalet being dissolved, and troops being withdrawn from Syria to fight on the Iranian front. Yunus and Ali were appointed to Safed and Sidon-Beirut, respectively, and shortly after both governorships were given to Ali.
Growing opposition to the Ma'ns by the Shias of Safed Sanjak culminated with their backing of Yaziji's efforts to replace Ali as sanjak-bey there and their alliance with the Harfushes in 1617–1618. Yaziji was killed almost immediately after taking up office in Safed in June 1618, and Ali was restored to the post.[61] Meanwhile, tensions rose between the Ma'ns and their Tanukhid and Abu'l-Lama allies relating to property disputes in Beirut.[62]
Peak of power
The Ottomans pardoned Fakhr al-Din and he returned to Mount Lebanon, arriving in Acre on 29 September 1618.[61] Upon hearing of his return, the Ma'ns' Druze allies immediately reconciled with Ali and from that point there was no further active Druze opposition to Fakhr al-Din.[62] Uneasy about the growing ties between the Harfushes and the Shia chiefs of Safed, he arrested the preeminent chief of the Shia in Jabal Amil, Ali Munkir, and released him after a ransom paid by Yunus al-Harfush.[61] He moved to supervise the collection of taxes in Bilad Bishara in December, prompting the Shia notable families of Ali Saghir, Munkir, Shukr and Daghir to take refuge with Yunus al-Harfush and evade payment. Fakhr al-Din responded by destroying their homes. He then reconciled with the Jabal Amil chiefs and Shia levies thereafter joined his army in his later military campaigns.[63]
Fakhr al-Din moved against the Sayfas in 1619, capturing and looted their stronghold of
In August/September 1623 Fakhr al-Din evicted the Harfushes from the southern Beqaa village of Qabb Ilyas for their prohibition on the Chouf Druze from cultivating their fields there.[70] Meanwhile, in June/July the Porte had replaced Ali Ma'n as sanjak-bey of Safed with a certain Bustanji Bashi and replaced his brother Husayn and the Ma'n loyalist Mustafa Kethuda as the sanjak-beys of Ajlun and Nablus with local opponents of the Ma'ns.[71][72] The Porte soon after restored the Ma'ns to Ajlun and Nablus, but not to Safed. The Ma'ns thereupon moved to assume control of Ajlun and Nablus. Fakhr al-Din launched a campaign against the Turabays and Farrukhs in northern Palestine, but was defeated in a battle at the Awja River near Ramla. On his way back to Mount Lebanon from the abortive Palestine campaign, Fakhr al-Din was notified that the Porte reappointed his sons and allies to Safed, Ajlun and Nablus.[73] The governor of Damascus, Mustafa Pasha, backed by the Harfushes and Sayfas, nonetheless proceeded to launch an expedition against the Ma'ns.[74] Fakhr al-Din routed the Damascene force at Anjar and captured Mustafa Pasha.[75][76] Fakhr al-Din extracted from the beylerbey confirmation of the Ma'ns' gpvernorships and the additional appointments of himself over Gaza Sanjak, his son Mansur over Lajjun Sanjak, and Ali over the southern Beqaa nahiya. The appointments to Gaza, Nablus and Lajjun were not implemented due to the opposition of local powerholders.[77] Fakhr al-Din plundered Baalbek soon after Anjar and captured and destroyed its citadel on 28 March.[78] Yunus al-Harfush was executed in 1625, the same year that Fakhr al-Din gained the governorship of the Baalbek nahiya.[79]
By 1624, Fakhr al-Din and his allies among the Sayfas who defected from Yusuf was in control of most of the Tripoli Eyalet, except for Tripoli city, the Krak des Chevaliers, the
Demise
The imperial government appointed
Later emirs
The Druze enemy of the Ma'ns, Ali Alam al-Din, was given authority over the Chouf by the Ottomans.[91] A surviving member of the dynasty, Mulhim Ma'n, the son of Yunus and nephew of Fakhr al-Din, had evaded capture and led the Druze opposition to Alam al-Din, defeating him in a battle and forcing his flight to Damascus in 1635. Alam al-Din soon after defeated Mulhim in the Beqaa Valley,[92] but Mulhim finally drove him out of the Chouf in 1636.[92] The people of the Druze Mountain mostly backed him.[93] In 1642 he was appointed by the Ottomans the multazim of the Chouf, Jurd, Gharb, and Matn, a position he largely held until 1657.[94]
Following Mulhim's death, his sons
Architectural works and legacy
Tyre
Fakhr al-Din and his brother owned properties in
In the late 18th century, under the rule of the Metwali governor Ali al-Saghir, the palace was turned into a garrison. At the beginning of the 19th century, it was transformed into a khan. The ownership of the place was transferred at an unspecified point from the Franciscans to the Melkite Greek Catholic Archeparchy of Tyre.[99][100] After the joint British and French Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (OETA) was declared on 23 October 1918 and Jabal Amil came under French control, the French Army used the palace as a base until the joint British-Free French Syria–Lebanon campaign captured the city from Vichy troops in mid-1941.[101]
When Israel launched its
Family tree
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See also
- Mount Lebanon Emirate
- Vanguard of the Maani Army (Movement of the Druze Jihad)
Notes
- ^ The identity of Qurqumaz's father is not definitively known. According to the historian Giovanni Minadoi (d. 1618), Qurqumaz's father, who Minadoi does not name, had been executed by a governor of Damascus named Mustafa Pasha. According to modern historian Abdul-Rahim Abu-Husayn, Qurqumaz's father may have been the "Yunus Ibn Ma'n" mentioned in an Ottoman tax register as the owner of three farms in 1530.[27]
- Ferdinand II, Grand Duke of Tuscany. A request to borrow the original portrait was made in 1659 by Abu Nawfal al-Khazen on behalf of Fakhr al-Din's grandnephews Ahmad and Qurqumaz, but there is no indication that the Grand Duke responded and the original's whereabouts are unknown.[34]
- ^ Salibi holds that information about the Ma'ns before Fakhr al-Din I is based on unverifiable local tradition.[1] The date of Ma'ns death is sourced by this tradition.[2]
- ^ He was the first governor of Beirut appointed by the Mamluks from the Tanukh dynasty.[104]
- ^ He is mentioned in an inscription of the Deir al-Qamar Mosque as the father of Fakhr al-Din Uthman, also known as 'Fakhr al-Din I'.[10] The date of his death is from the 19th-century historian from Mount Lebanon, Tannus al-Shidyaq, who erroneously calls him "Yusuf".[105]
- ^ He is the first member of the Ma'n dynasty "whose historicity is beyond question", according to Salibi.[1]
- ^ According to the historian William Harris, Sayf al-Din Abu Bakr was the grandson of Izz al-Din Sadaqa and succeeded al-Sayyid al-Tanukhi as the spiritual leader of the Druze. Sayf al-Din's father, Izz al-Din's son, is not mentioned by name.[9]
- ^ The historian Abdul-Rahim Abu-Husayn theorizes that this Yunus was "possibly a son" of the preceding Qurqumaz and may have been the father of the next Qurqumaz (d. 1586), who was the father of Fakhr al-Din II.[27] The Damascene poet Muhammad ibn Mami (d. 1579) indicates that a Druze chief named Yunus was executed by the Ottoman governor of Damascus, though no date is provided.[109] The Italian historian Giovanni Minadoi (d. 1618) holds that the father of the Qurqumaz who died in 1586 was executed by the Ottomans, but neither provides a date nor the name of the father.[27] The modern researcher Alexander Hourani, citing Ottoman government archives, claims the execution occurred in c. 1556.[110]
- ^ Mundhir ibn Alam al-Din Sulayman ibn Muhammad was a leading emir of the Tanukh and a tax farmer in the Gharb nahiya southeast of Beirut. Hourani argues that he was the grandson of Nasir al-Din Muhammad ibn Sayf al-Din Abu Bakr.[108]
- ^ Although he is only referred to as 'Sayf al-Din' in the available sources, his given name and those of his father and grandfather being omitted, he is mentioned as the brother of Mundhir and Sitt Nasab.[111]
References
- ^ a b c d e f Salibi 1991, p. 343.
- ^ a b c d e f Abu-Izzedin 1993, p. 179.
- ^ a b Harris 2012, pp. 58–59.
- ^ Salibi 2005, pp. 116–117.
- ^ Salibi 2005, p. 117.
- ^ Harris 2012, p. 58.
- ^ a b Harris 2012, p. 59.
- ^ a b c Betts 1988, p. 71.
- ^ a b Harris 2012, p. 78.
- ^ a b c d e Salibi 1973, p. 277.
- ^ a b c Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 67.
- ^ Salibi 2005, p. 123.
- ^ a b c d Salibi 1973, p. 278.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1992, p. 666.
- ^ Harris 2012, pp. 88–89.
- ^ Harris 2012, p. 89.
- ^ Salibi 1973, pp. 280–281.
- ^ a b c Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 68–69.
- ^ a b c Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 69.
- ^ Salibi 1973, p. 284.
- ^ Salibi 1973, pp. 284–285.
- ^ a b c Abu-Husayn 1992, p. 668.
- ^ a b c d Harris 2012, p. 91.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1992, pp. 668–669.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1992, p. 669.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 67 note 3, 69–70.
- ^ a b c d Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 70.
- ^ Bakhit 1982, p. 164.
- ^ Bakhit 1982, p. 165.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 71.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 69, 71.
- ^ a b Abu-Husayn 1992, p. 670.
- ^ Salibi 1965, p. 749.
- ^ Chehab 1994, pp. 117, 120–122.
- ^ Bakhit 1972, p. 191.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 80.
- ^ a b Olsaretti 2008, p. 728.
- ^ Hourani 2010, p. 922.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 81.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 84.
- ^ Hourani 2010, p. 923.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1993, p. 3.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 83.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 83–84.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985.
- ^ Winter 2010, p. 51.
- ^ a b Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 85.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 26.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 24–25.
- ^ a b Olsaretti 2008, p. 729.
- ^ a b Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 87.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 89.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 89, 91, note 87.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 91.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 93.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 94.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 95.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 95–96.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 97, 99.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 101–102.
- ^ a b c Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 106.
- ^ a b Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 102.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 109.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 43–44.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 44–45.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 45.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 50.
- ^ Salibi 1968, pp. 66–68, 85, 86 note 1.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 51.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 115–116.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 114.
- ^ Hourani 2010, p. 933.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 117.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 118.
- ^ Hourani 2010, p. 928.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 119–120.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 119–121.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 120, 123, 149–150.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 122–123, 150.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 54.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 55–56.
- ^ Hourani 2010, p. 930.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 56.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 125.
- ^ Harris 2012, p. 103.
- ^ Hourani 2010, p. 934.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 126, note 139.
- ^ a b Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 126.
- ^ Hourani 2010, pp. 935–936.
- ^ Hourani 2010, pp. 936, 938.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 127.
- ^ a b Hourani 2010, p. 938.
- ^ Harris 2012, p. 108.
- ^ Hourani 2010, p. 939.
- ^ a b Abu Husayn 2004, p. 22.
- ^ a b c Abu-Husayn 2004, pp. 22–23.
- ^ a b Salibi 2005, p. 66.
- ^ Weber 2010, p. 203, note 38.
- ^ a b Jaber, Kamel (2005). Memory of the South. Beirut: South for Construction. pp. 94, 96–97.
- ^ a b c Badawi 2018, pp. 94, 103–121.
- ^ a b c Badawi 2008, p. 103.
- ISBN 978-1-56656-963-7.
- ^ "News in brief published on 15/07/2003". THE DAILY STAR. 2003-07-15. Archived from the original on 2021-07-09. Retrieved 2021-07-06.
- ^ Harris 2012, p. 77.
- ^ Hourani 2010, p. 917.
- ^ Hourani 2010, p. 945.
- ^ Salibi 1973, p. 280.
- ^ a b Hourani 2010, p. 946.
- ^ Bakhit 1972, p. 108.
- ^ Hourani 2010, p. 919.
- ^ Hourani 2010, pp. 946–947.
- ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 70–71.
Bibliography
- Abu-Husayn, Abdul-Rahim (1985). Provincial Leaderships in Syria, 1575-1650. Beirut: American University of Beirut. ISBN 9780815660729.
- Abu-Husayn, Abdul-Rahim (November 1992). "Problems in the Ottoman Administration in Syria during the 16th and 17th Centuries: The Case of the Sanjak of Sidon-Beirut". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 24 (4): 665–675. S2CID 159670509.
- Abu-Husayn, Abdul-Rahim (1993). "Khalidi on Fakhr al-Din: Apology as History". Al-Abhath. 41: 3–15.
- Abu-Husayn, Abdul-Rahim (2004). The View from Istanbul: Lebanon and the Druze Emirate in the Ottoman Chancery Documents, 1546-1711. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-856-4.
- Abu-Izzedin, Nejla M. (1993) [1984]. The Druzes: A New Study of Their History, Faith, and Society (2nd ed.). Leiden and New York: Brill. ISBN 90-04-09705-8.
- Badawi, Ali Khalil (2008). "Tyr - L'histoire d'une Ville". Tyre: Tyre/Sour/Tyr: Municipalité de Tyr / Tyre Municipality / Baladia Sour.
{{cite magazine}}
: Cite magazine requires|magazine=
(help) - Badawi, Ali Khalil (2018). "Tyre" (4th ed.). Beirut: Al-Athar Magazine.
{{cite magazine}}
: Cite magazine requires|magazine=
(help) - Bakhit, Muhammad Adnan Salamah (February 1972). The Ottoman Province of Damascus in the Sixteenth Century (PhD). School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
- Bakhit, Muhammad Adnan (1982). The Ottoman Province of Damascus in the Sixteenth Century. Librairie du Liban. ISBN 9780866853224.
- Betts, Robert Brendon (1988). The Druze. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04100-4.
- Chehab, Hafez (1994). "Reconstructing the Medici Portrait of Fakhr al-Din Maʾani". Muqarnas. 11: 117–124. JSTOR 1523213.
- Harris, William (2012). Lebanon: A History, 600–2011. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518-111-1.
- Hourani, Alexander (2010). New Documents on the History of Mount Lebanon and Arabistan in the 10th and 11th Centuries H. Beirut.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ISBN 978-0-7864-1375-1.
- Olsaretti, Alessandro (December 2008). "Political Dynamics in the Rise of Fakhr al-Din, 1590-1633". The International History Review. 30 (4): 709–740. S2CID 153677447.
- OCLC 495469475.
- JSTOR 4056124.
- ISBN 978-90-04-08112-3.
- Salibi, Kamal S. (July 1973). "The Secret of the House of Ma'n". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 4 (3): 272–287. S2CID 163020137.
- Salibi, Kamal S. (2005). A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-912-7.
- ISBN 978-90-04-18193-9.
- Winter, Stefan (2010). The Shiites of Lebanon under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1788. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76584-8.
Further reading
- Abu-Husayn, Abdul-Rahim (1985). "The Ottoman Invasion of the Shūf in 1585: A Reconsideration". Al-Abhath. 32: 13–21.