Ma'n dynasty

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Ma'n dynasty
بَنُو مَعْن (Banū Maʿn)
Chouf in Mount Lebanon
, part of the:
Founded
  • 1120 (as cited by local tradition)
  • Late 15th century (as attested historically)
Founder
Final rulerAhmed ibn Mulhim ibn Yunus fl. 1658–1697
Members
Dissolution1697

The Ma'n dynasty (

Arabic: ٱلْمَعْنِيُّونَ), were a family of Druze chiefs of Arab stock based in the rugged Chouf area of southern Mount Lebanon who were politically prominent in the 15th–17th centuries. Traditional Lebanese histories date the family's arrival in the Chouf to the 12th century, when they were held to have struggled against the Crusader lords of Beirut and of Sidon alongside their Druze allies, the Tanukh Buhturids. They may have been part of a wider movement by the Muslim rulers of Damascus to settle militarized Arab tribesmen in Mount Lebanon as a buffer against the Crusader strongholds along the Levantine coast. Fakhr al-Din I (d. 1506), the first member of the family whose historicity is certain, was the "emir of the Chouf", according to contemporary sources and, despite the non-use of mosques by the Druze, founded the Fakhreddine Mosque in the family's stronghold of Deir al-Qamar
.

Two years following the advent of Ottoman rule in the Syrian region in 1516, three chiefs of the Ma'n dynasty were imprisoned for rebellion by the Damascus Eyalet governor Janbirdi al-Ghazali, but released by Sultan Selim I. The Ma'ns and their Druze coreligionists in the Chouf were continually targeted in punitive campaigns by the Ottomans related to their evasion and defiance of government tax collectors and their stockpiling of illegal firearms, which were often superior to those of the government troops. The particularly destructive 1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze prompted the Ma'nid emir Qurqumaz ibn Yunis to go into hiding in the neighboring Kisrawan, where he died the following year.

His son,

Maronite, northern Mount Lebanon. By 1630 he controlled much of Tripoli Eyalet and was poised against Damascus
. The imperial government destroyed Ma'nid power in a second expedition in 1633, killing most of the dynasty's members and capturing and executing Fakhr al-Din in 1635.

A surviving son of Yunus, Mulhim Ma'n defeated the family's government-backed Druze rival,

Bashir II in 1841. The emirate and iltizam of the Ma'ns and Shihabs over much of Mount Lebanon is viewed by historians as an early precursor to present-day Lebanon
.

History

Origins

in 1120

According to the historian

Chouf (also transliterated as Shuf) in southern Mount Lebanon in 1120 by Ilghazi's ally, Toghtekin of Damascus, to reinforce the Tanukhid Druze emirs of the neighboring Gharb district around modern Aley against the Crusader lords of Beirut.[2][3] According to Salibi's analysis of the 19th-century history of Tannus al-Shidyaq, the deployment of the Ma'n was part of the wider deployment of Arab military settlers to parts of Mount Lebanon and its environs by the Muslim rulers of Damascus to counter the Crusaders.[4] The emirs of the Banu Shihab, an Arab family established in nearby Wadi al-Taym, collaborated with the Ma'nids against the Crusaders and from early on the two families established marital ties.[5]

The

Mamluk era (1260–1516).[9]

Fakhr al-Din Uthman
for its construction in 1493

The first Ma'nid "whose historicity is beyond question" was

Sunni Muslim Mamluk rulers.[10][12] The usage of the terms "emir" (commander) and al-Maqarr (an honorific for leading Mamluk officers or officials) suggest the Ma'nid chiefs held military commissions in the Mamluk army.[10][11] Fakhr al-Din's son Yunus was also called by Ibn Sibat the "emir of the Ashwaf" at the time of his death in 1511–12.[13] The accounts of Ibn Sibat indicate the Ma'n controlled all or parts of the Chouf before the Ottoman conquest of the Levant in 1516.[11]

Early interactions with the Ottomans

Following the Ottoman conquest, the Chouf was administratively divided into three

nahiyas (subdistricts) of the Sidon-Beirut Sanjak, which was a district of the Damascus Eyalet. The Chouf subdistricts, along with the subdistricts of Gharb, Jurd and Matn were predominantly populated by Druze at the time and collectively referred to as the Druze Mountain.[14] The Ottoman sultan Selim I, after entering Damascus and receiving the defection of its Mamluk governor Janbirdi al-Ghazali, who was kept in his post, showed preference to the Turkmen Assaf clan, the Keserwan-based enemies of the Ma'nids' Buhturid allies. He entrusted the Assafs with political authority or tax-farming rights in the subdistricts between Beirut and Tripoli, north of the Druze Mountain.[15] The Buhturid emir Jamal al-Din Hajji did not give allegiance to Selim in Damascus and after discarding an Ottoman call to arms in 1518, he was imprisoned.[16] The son of the Ma'nid emir Yunus, Qurqumaz, was summoned and confirmed by Selim in Damascus as the chief of the Chouf in 1517, according to the 17th-century historian and Maronite patriarch Istifan al-Duwayhi.[13] Ibn Sibat does not mention any Ma'nid being received by the sultan in Damascus,[17] but noted that the Ma'nid emirs Qurqumaz, Alam al-Din Sulayman and Zayn al-Din were all arrested by Janbirdi al-Ghazali in 1518 and transferred to the custody of Selim, who released them after a heavy fine for supporting the rebellion of the Bedouin Banu al-Hansh emirs in Sidon and the Beqaa Valley.[18]

The village of Baruk (pictured in 2005) was the headquarters of Qurqumaz, the grandson of Fakhr al-Din I and ancestor of Fakhr al-Din II

The three Ma'nids likely shared the chieftainship of the Chouf, though the length and nature of the arrangement is not known.

Sayfa family after their flight from Akkar in 1528.[19] Qurqumaz's establishment in Baruk instead of his predecessors' apparent seat in Deir al-Qamar may have been related to a conflict with Alam al-Din Sulayman, who may have controlled Deir al-Qamar at the time,[21] or a division of the Chouf between the Ma'nid chieftains.[19]

In 1523, forty-three villages in Shuf Sulayman Ibn Ma'n, including Baruk, were burned by the forces of the Damascus governor

Khurram Pasha for tax arrears and Ma'nid disobedience, and the governor's forces sent back to Damascus four cartloads of Druze heads and religious texts in the aftermath of the campaign.[22][23] According to Harris, "such brutality entrenched [Druze] resistance",[23] and in the following year Druze fighters killed subashis (provincial officials) appointed by Khurram Pasha to administer Mount Lebanon's subdistricts, prompting another government expedition against the Chouf, which returned three cartloads of Druze heads and three hundred women and children as captives.[22] The death of Jamal al-Din Hajji in prison in 1521 and the Ottoman expeditions led the Buhturids to accept Ma'nid precedence over the Druze of southern Mount Lebanon.[23] In 1545 the leading emir of the Druze, Yunus Ma'n, was lured to Damascus and executed by the authorities under unclear circumstances, but suggesting continued insubordination by the Druze under Ma'nid leadership.[22]

Following the death of Yunus, the Druze moved to import from the Venetians long-range muskets superior to those employed by the Ottomans.

Egyptian tribute destined for the sultan in Constantinople[33] The aftermath of the campaign and the death of Qurqumaz left the Druze Mountain in an anarchic state marked by internal fighting among the Druze.[32]

Era of Fakhr al-Din II

Control of Sidon-Beirut and Safed sanjaks

Engraving of a portrait of Fakhr al-Din II.[b]

Around 1590 Qurqumaz was succeeded by his eldest son Fakhr al-Din II as the muqaddam of all or part of the Chouf.[35][36] Unlike his Ma'nid predecessors, Fakhr al-Din cooperated with the Ottomans, who, though able to suppress Mount Lebanon's local chiefs with massive force, were unable to pacify the region in the long term without local support.[37] When the veteran general Murad Pasha was appointed beylerbey of Damascus, Fakhr al-Din hosted and gave him expensive gifts upon his arrival to Sidon in September 1593.[38][39] Murad Pasha reciprocated by appointing him the sanjak-bey (district governor, called amir liwa in Arabic sources) of Sidon-Beirut in December.[37] The Ottomans' preoccupation with the wars against Safavid Iran (1578–1590; 1603–1618) and the war with Hapsburg Austria afforded Fakhr al-Din the space to consolidate and expand his semi-autonomous power.[40]

saray in Deir al-Qamar
, seat of the Ma'n under Fakhr al-Din

In July 1602,

Safed.[43] With the Druze of Sidon-Beirut and Safed under his authority, he effectively became their paramount chief. Fakhr al-Din may have been appointed to the post to leverage his Druze power base against the Shia.[44]

In 1606, Fakhr al-Din made common cause with the Kurdish rebel Ali Janbulad of Aleppo against his local rival Yusuf Sayfa of Tripoli; the latter had been invested as commander-in-chief of the Ottoman armies in the Levant to suppress Janbulad.[45] Fakhr al-Din may have been motivated by his ambitions of regional autonomy,[46] defense of his territory from Sayfa, or expanding his control to Beirut and Keserwan, both held by Sayfa.[47] The rebel allies besieged Sayfa in Damascus, eventually forcing his flight.[48] In the course of the fighting, Fakhr al-Din took over the Keserwan.[49] When Janbulad was defeated by the Ottomans, Fakhr al-Din appeased Murad Pasha, who had since become grand vizier, with substantial sums of cash and goods.[47][50] The high amount is an indicator of the Ma'ns' wealth.[50] Fakhr al-Din was kept as sanjak-bey of Safed, his son Ali was appointed as sanjak-bey of Sidon-Beirut and the Ma'ns' control of Keserwan was recognized by the Porte.[51]

Shaqif Arnun was a stronghold of Fakhr al-Din, guarding his domains from the south.

Interregnum of Yunus and Ali

Fakhr al-Din lost imperial favor with the death of Murad Pasha in July 1611 and the succession of

Jelali revolts in Anatolia, had turned its attention to affairs in the Levant.[52] The authorities had become wary of Fakhr al-Din's expanding territory, his alliance with Grand Duchy of Tuscany, his unsanctioned strengthening and garrisoning of fortresses and his employment of outlawed sekbans.[53] Nasuh Pasha appointed Ahmed Pasha, the governor of Damascus, at the head of a large army to suppress Fakhr al-Din.[54] The latter boarded a European ship and escaped to Livorno, Tuscany.[55]

In Fakhr al-Din's absence his younger brother Yunus acted as head of the family in the Chouf. The Ma'ns' sekbans stationed in their headquarter village of Deir al-Qamar collaborated with Ahmed Pasha, prompting Yunus to abandon the village for Baakline.

Subayba, which the Ottomans sought to dismantle, were controlled by the family's sekbans led by Husayn Yaziji and Husayn Tawil, respectively; with the help of the rival Harfush dynasty of Baalbek, the sekban commanders arranged the two fortresses' demolition and were rewarded by the authorities. The Ma'ns were stripped of their governorships of Sidon-Beirut, Safed, and Keserwan, but Yunus retained the tax farm of the Chouf from the governor of the newly created Sidon Eyalet in 1614. Their Druze and Shia rivals re-emerged as the tax farmers and governors of their home districts in Mount Lebanon and Jabal Amil.[58]

Although the Ma'ns' position was severely weakened, in 1615 political circumstances changed in their favor with Nasuh Pasha being executed, Ahmed Pasha being replaced by a friendly governor, the Sidon Eyalet being dissolved, and troops being withdrawn from Syria to fight on the Iranian front. Yunus and Ali were appointed to Safed and Sidon-Beirut, respectively, and shortly after both governorships were given to Ali.

Abeih and the spring of Naimeh on the coast south of Beirut. In the course of the fighting, they retook control of Beirut and the Keserwan. Afterward Ali awarded the Ma'ns' Tanukhid allies and relatives the tax farms of Beirut, the Gharb and the Jurd, and the Abu'l-Lama family the tax farm of the Matn.[60]

Growing opposition to the Ma'ns by the Shias of Safed Sanjak culminated with their backing of Yaziji's efforts to replace Ali as sanjak-bey there and their alliance with the Harfushes in 1617–1618. Yaziji was killed almost immediately after taking up office in Safed in June 1618, and Ali was restored to the post.[61] Meanwhile, tensions rose between the Ma'ns and their Tanukhid and Abu'l-Lama allies relating to property disputes in Beirut.[62]

Peak of power

The Ottomans pardoned Fakhr al-Din and he returned to Mount Lebanon, arriving in Acre on 29 September 1618.[61] Upon hearing of his return, the Ma'ns' Druze allies immediately reconciled with Ali and from that point there was no further active Druze opposition to Fakhr al-Din.[62] Uneasy about the growing ties between the Harfushes and the Shia chiefs of Safed, he arrested the preeminent chief of the Shia in Jabal Amil, Ali Munkir, and released him after a ransom paid by Yunus al-Harfush.[61] He moved to supervise the collection of taxes in Bilad Bishara in December, prompting the Shia notable families of Ali Saghir, Munkir, Shukr and Daghir to take refuge with Yunus al-Harfush and evade payment. Fakhr al-Din responded by destroying their homes. He then reconciled with the Jabal Amil chiefs and Shia levies thereafter joined his army in his later military campaigns.[63]

Fakhr al-Din moved against the Sayfas in 1619, capturing and looted their stronghold of

Hisn Akkar and four days later besieging Yusuf and the latter's Druze allies in the Krak des Chevaliers.[64] He then sent a detachment to burn the Sayfas' home village of Akkar and gained the defection of the Sayfa forts of Byblos and Smar Jbeil.[65] Fakhr al-Din was compelled by Ottoman pressure to lift the siege, but during the hostilities had gained control of the Byblos and Batroun nahiyas.[66] Yusuf was dismissed in 1622 after failing to remit taxes to the Porte, but refused to hand over power to his replacement Umar Kittanji, who in turn requested Fakhr al-Din's military support. Fakhr al-Din complied in return for the iltizam of the Tripoli nahiyas of Dinniyeh, Bsharri and Akkar. Once Fakhr al-Din set out from Ghazir, Yusuf abandoned Tripoli for Akkar.[67] The Emir thereafter sent his Maronite ally Abu Safi Khazen, the brother of his mudabbir (fiscal and political adviser, scribe) Abu Nadir Khazen, to occupy Maronite-populated Bsharri, thereby ending the rule of the local Maronite muqaddams established since the late 14th century.[68] In 1623 Fakhr al-Din mobilized his forces in Bsharri in support of Yusuf's rebellious nephew Sulayman, who controlled Safita. Fakhr al-Din's intervention confirmed the Ma'ns as the practical overlords of Safita.[69]

An engraving by Olfert Dapper from 1677 depicting Fakhr al-Din's capture of Mustafa Pasha, beylerbey of Damascus, at the Battle of Anjar in 1623. Fakhr al-Din is shown as the standing, turbaned figure pointing toward Mustafa Pasha, who is being held to the ground.

In August/September 1623 Fakhr al-Din evicted the Harfushes from the southern Beqaa village of Qabb Ilyas for their prohibition on the Chouf Druze from cultivating their fields there.[70] Meanwhile, in June/July the Porte had replaced Ali Ma'n as sanjak-bey of Safed with a certain Bustanji Bashi and replaced his brother Husayn and the Ma'n loyalist Mustafa Kethuda as the sanjak-beys of Ajlun and Nablus with local opponents of the Ma'ns.[71][72] The Porte soon after restored the Ma'ns to Ajlun and Nablus, but not to Safed. The Ma'ns thereupon moved to assume control of Ajlun and Nablus. Fakhr al-Din launched a campaign against the Turabays and Farrukhs in northern Palestine, but was defeated in a battle at the Awja River near Ramla. On his way back to Mount Lebanon from the abortive Palestine campaign, Fakhr al-Din was notified that the Porte reappointed his sons and allies to Safed, Ajlun and Nablus.[73] The governor of Damascus, Mustafa Pasha, backed by the Harfushes and Sayfas, nonetheless proceeded to launch an expedition against the Ma'ns.[74] Fakhr al-Din routed the Damascene force at Anjar and captured Mustafa Pasha.[75][76] Fakhr al-Din extracted from the beylerbey confirmation of the Ma'ns' gpvernorships and the additional appointments of himself over Gaza Sanjak, his son Mansur over Lajjun Sanjak, and Ali over the southern Beqaa nahiya. The appointments to Gaza, Nablus and Lajjun were not implemented due to the opposition of local powerholders.[77] Fakhr al-Din plundered Baalbek soon after Anjar and captured and destroyed its citadel on 28 March.[78] Yunus al-Harfush was executed in 1625, the same year that Fakhr al-Din gained the governorship of the Baalbek nahiya.[79]

By 1624, Fakhr al-Din and his allies among the Sayfas who defected from Yusuf was in control of most of the Tripoli Eyalet, except for Tripoli city, the Krak des Chevaliers, the

Marqab by Yusuf's sons.[81] In September 1626 he captured the fortress of Salamiyah, followed by Hama and Homs, appointing his deputies to govern them.[82] Fakhr al-Din was appointed beylerbey of Tripoli in 1627, according solely to Duwayhi.[83] By the early 1630s Fakhr al-Din captured many places around Damascus, controlled thirty fortresses, commanded a large army of sekbans, and, according to a contemporary Ottoman historian, the "only thing left for him to do was to claim the Sultanate".[84]

Demise

The imperial government appointed

Marqab, had already been captured by Kuchuk.[89] His sons Hasan, Haydar, and Bulak, his brother Yunus and nephew Hamdan ibn Yunus were all executed by Kuckuk during the expedition.[90] Fakhr al-Din was imprisoned in Constantinople and he and his son Mansur were executed in 1635 on the orders of Murad IV.[88]

Later emirs

Genealogical tree of the Ma'n dynasty

The Druze enemy of the Ma'ns, Ali Alam al-Din, was given authority over the Chouf by the Ottomans.[91] A surviving member of the dynasty, Mulhim Ma'n, the son of Yunus and nephew of Fakhr al-Din, had evaded capture and led the Druze opposition to Alam al-Din, defeating him in a battle and forcing his flight to Damascus in 1635. Alam al-Din soon after defeated Mulhim in the Beqaa Valley,[92] but Mulhim finally drove him out of the Chouf in 1636.[92] The people of the Druze Mountain mostly backed him.[93] In 1642 he was appointed by the Ottomans the multazim of the Chouf, Jurd, Gharb, and Matn, a position he largely held until 1657.[94]

Following Mulhim's death, his sons

Shihab family through female-line inheritance.[97]

Architectural works and legacy

Tyre

Fakhr al-Din and his brother owned properties in

Louis XIII of France and Cardinal Richelieu[102] the Ma'nid palace in Tyre came under the ownership of the Franciscans.[100]

In the late 18th century, under the rule of the Metwali governor Ali al-Saghir, the palace was turned into a garrison. At the beginning of the 19th century, it was transformed into a khan. The ownership of the place was transferred at an unspecified point from the Franciscans to the Melkite Greek Catholic Archeparchy of Tyre.[99][100] After the joint British and French Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (OETA) was declared on 23 October 1918 and Jabal Amil came under French control, the French Army used the palace as a base until the joint British-Free French Syria–Lebanon campaign captured the city from Vichy troops in mid-1941.[101]

When Israel launched its

Speaker of the Parliament of Lebanon, patronized a plan to renovate the Ma'nid palace and convert it into a museum.[103]
As of 2019, nothing was done in that regard and the ruins have kept on crumbling.

Family tree

Genealogical tree of the Ma'n dynasty and their relations with the Tanukh and Shihab dynasties
Family of Ma'n dynasty
  Paramount Emir of the Druze
  Dynasties: Ma'n—Outlined in Black; Tanukh—Outlined in Red; Shihab—Outlined in Purple
  Italic text denotes females
  Dashed lines denote marriages
Ma'n d. 1148?[c]
missed generations
Izz al-Din Sadaqa fl. 1420s[d]Al-Hajj Yunus d. 1470[e]
missed generation
Fakhr al-Din Uthman d. 1506[f]
Sayf al-Din Abu Bakr d. 1492[g]Yunus d. 1511/1512[13]
Sharaf al-Din Yahya fl. 1516–1518[106][107]Nasir al-Din Muhammad fl. 1519–1567[108]Qurqumaz fl. 1518–1528[13][18]
Alam al-Din SulaymanYunus d. 1556?[h]
Mundhir fl. 1556–1624[i]Sayf al-Din fl. 1585–1598[j]Sitt Nasab[23]Qurqumaz d. 1586[112]Qasim fl. 1574
Fakhr al-Din II d. 1635Yunus d. 1633Ali d. 1633Ahmad fl.1592–1633
Ali d. 1633Mansur d. 1635Hasan d. 1633Husayn d. 1690 or 1697Buluk d. 1633Haydar d. 1633Mulhim d. 1658Hamdan d. 1633daughterQasim d. 1633Husayn d. 1633
Qurqumaz d. 1662Ahmad d. 1697Fa'izaMansur d. 1662Bashir I d. 1705
Mulhim d. 1680daughterMusa fl.1693
Haydar d. 1732

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The identity of Qurqumaz's father is not definitively known. According to the historian Giovanni Minadoi (d. 1618), Qurqumaz's father, who Minadoi does not name, had been executed by a governor of Damascus named Mustafa Pasha. According to modern historian Abdul-Rahim Abu-Husayn, Qurqumaz's father may have been the "Yunus Ibn Ma'n" mentioned in an Ottoman tax register as the owner of three farms in 1530.[27]
  2. Ferdinand II, Grand Duke of Tuscany. A request to borrow the original portrait was made in 1659 by Abu Nawfal al-Khazen on behalf of Fakhr al-Din's grandnephews Ahmad and Qurqumaz, but there is no indication that the Grand Duke responded and the original's whereabouts are unknown.[34]
  3. ^ Salibi holds that information about the Ma'ns before Fakhr al-Din I is based on unverifiable local tradition.[1] The date of Ma'ns death is sourced by this tradition.[2]
  4. ^ He was the first governor of Beirut appointed by the Mamluks from the Tanukh dynasty.[104]
  5. ^ He is mentioned in an inscription of the Deir al-Qamar Mosque as the father of Fakhr al-Din Uthman, also known as 'Fakhr al-Din I'.[10] The date of his death is from the 19th-century historian from Mount Lebanon, Tannus al-Shidyaq, who erroneously calls him "Yusuf".[105]
  6. ^ He is the first member of the Ma'n dynasty "whose historicity is beyond question", according to Salibi.[1]
  7. ^ According to the historian William Harris, Sayf al-Din Abu Bakr was the grandson of Izz al-Din Sadaqa and succeeded al-Sayyid al-Tanukhi as the spiritual leader of the Druze. Sayf al-Din's father, Izz al-Din's son, is not mentioned by name.[9]
  8. ^ The historian Abdul-Rahim Abu-Husayn theorizes that this Yunus was "possibly a son" of the preceding Qurqumaz and may have been the father of the next Qurqumaz (d. 1586), who was the father of Fakhr al-Din II.[27] The Damascene poet Muhammad ibn Mami (d. 1579) indicates that a Druze chief named Yunus was executed by the Ottoman governor of Damascus, though no date is provided.[109] The Italian historian Giovanni Minadoi (d. 1618) holds that the father of the Qurqumaz who died in 1586 was executed by the Ottomans, but neither provides a date nor the name of the father.[27] The modern researcher Alexander Hourani, citing Ottoman government archives, claims the execution occurred in c. 1556.[110]
  9. ^ Mundhir ibn Alam al-Din Sulayman ibn Muhammad was a leading emir of the Tanukh and a tax farmer in the Gharb nahiya southeast of Beirut. Hourani argues that he was the grandson of Nasir al-Din Muhammad ibn Sayf al-Din Abu Bakr.[108]
  10. ^ Although he is only referred to as 'Sayf al-Din' in the available sources, his given name and those of his father and grandfather being omitted, he is mentioned as the brother of Mundhir and Sitt Nasab.[111]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f Salibi 1991, p. 343.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Abu-Izzedin 1993, p. 179.
  3. ^ a b Harris 2012, pp. 58–59.
  4. ^ Salibi 2005, pp. 116–117.
  5. ^ Salibi 2005, p. 117.
  6. ^ Harris 2012, p. 58.
  7. ^ a b Harris 2012, p. 59.
  8. ^ a b c Betts 1988, p. 71.
  9. ^ a b Harris 2012, p. 78.
  10. ^ a b c d e Salibi 1973, p. 277.
  11. ^ a b c Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 67.
  12. ^ Salibi 2005, p. 123.
  13. ^ a b c d Salibi 1973, p. 278.
  14. ^ Abu-Husayn 1992, p. 666.
  15. ^ Harris 2012, pp. 88–89.
  16. ^ Harris 2012, p. 89.
  17. ^ Salibi 1973, pp. 280–281.
  18. ^ a b c Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 68–69.
  19. ^ a b c Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 69.
  20. ^ Salibi 1973, p. 284.
  21. ^ Salibi 1973, pp. 284–285.
  22. ^ a b c Abu-Husayn 1992, p. 668.
  23. ^ a b c d Harris 2012, p. 91.
  24. ^ Abu-Husayn 1992, pp. 668–669.
  25. ^ Abu-Husayn 1992, p. 669.
  26. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 67 note 3, 69–70.
  27. ^ a b c d Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 70.
  28. ^ Bakhit 1982, p. 164.
  29. ^ Bakhit 1982, p. 165.
  30. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 71.
  31. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 69, 71.
  32. ^ a b Abu-Husayn 1992, p. 670.
  33. ^ Salibi 1965, p. 749.
  34. ^ Chehab 1994, pp. 117, 120–122.
  35. ^ Bakhit 1972, p. 191.
  36. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 80.
  37. ^ a b Olsaretti 2008, p. 728.
  38. ^ Hourani 2010, p. 922.
  39. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 81.
  40. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 84.
  41. ^ Hourani 2010, p. 923.
  42. ^ Abu-Husayn 1993, p. 3.
  43. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 83.
  44. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 83–84.
  45. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985.
  46. ^ Winter 2010, p. 51.
  47. ^ a b Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 85.
  48. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 26.
  49. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 24–25.
  50. ^ a b Olsaretti 2008, p. 729.
  51. ^ a b Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 87.
  52. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 89.
  53. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 89, 91, note 87.
  54. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 91.
  55. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 93.
  56. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 94.
  57. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 95.
  58. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 95–96.
  59. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 97, 99.
  60. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 101–102.
  61. ^ a b c Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 106.
  62. ^ a b Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 102.
  63. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 109.
  64. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 43–44.
  65. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 44–45.
  66. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 45.
  67. ^ Abu-Husayn 1985, p. 50.
  68. ^ Salibi 1968, pp. 66–68, 85, 86 note 1.
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Bibliography

Further reading