Islamic views on slavery
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Islamic views on slavery represent a complex and multifaceted body of
Slavery in Islamic law is not based on race or ethnicity. However, while there was no legal distinction between white European and black African slaves, in some Muslim societies they were employed in different roles.[5] Slaves in Islam were mostly assigned to the service sector, including as concubines, cooks, and porters.[6] There were also those who were trained militarily, converted to Islam, and manumitted to serve as soldiers; this was the case with the Mamluks, who later managed to seize power by overthrowing their Muslim masters, the Ayyubids.[7][8] In some cases, the harsh treatment of slaves also led to notable uprisings, such as the Zanj Rebellion.[9] Bernard Lewis opines that in later times, the domestic slaves, although subjected to appalling privations from the time of their capture until their final destination, seemed to be treated reasonably well once they were placed in a family and to some extent accepted as members of the household.[10]
The
Many early converts to Islam were the poor and former slaves. One notable example is
Slavery in pre-Islamic Arabia
Slavery was widely practiced in
Two classes of slave existed: a purchased slave, and a slave born in the master's home. Over the latter the master had complete rights of ownership, though these slaves were unlikely to be sold or disposed of by the master. Female slaves were at times forced into prostitution for the benefit of their masters, in accordance with Near Eastern customs.[23][26][27]
The historical accounts of the early years of Islam report that "slaves of non-Muslim masters ... suffered brutal punishments.
There were many common features between the institution of slavery in the Quran and that of pre-Islamic culture. However, the Quranic institution had some unique new features.[25] According to Brockopp, the idea of using alms for the manumission of slaves who had converted to Islam appears to be unique to the Quran.[28] Islam also prohibits the use of female slaves for prostitution which was common in pre-Islamic history.[29]
Brockopp states that the Qur'an was a progressive legislation on slavery in its time because it encouraged proper treatment.[25] Others state that Islam's record with slavery has been mixed, progressive in Arabian lands, but it increased slavery and worsened abuse as Muslim armies attacked people in Africa, Europe and Asia.[30][31] Murray notes that Quran sanctified the institution of slavery and abuses therein, but to its credit did not freeze the status of a slave and allowed a means to a slave's manumission in some cases when the slave converted to Islam.[31][32]
Quran
Alms-tax is only for the poor and the needy, for those employed to administer it, for those whose hearts are attracted ˹to the faith˺, for ˹freeing˺ slaves, for those in debt, for Allah’s cause, and for ˹needy˺ travellers. ˹This is˺ an obligation from Allah. And Allah is All-Knowing, All-Wise.
The Quran contains a number of verses aimed at regulating slavery and mitigating its negative impact.[33][34] It calls for the manumission (freeing) of slaves.[34][35] It prescribes kindness towards slaves.[34][36] Slaves are considered morally equal to free persons, however, they have a lower legal standing. All Quranic rules on slaves are emancipatory in that they improve the rights of slaves compared to what was already practiced in the 7th century.[37] Many Muslims have interpreted Quran as gradually phasing out slavery.[38][37]
The Quran calls for the freeing of slaves, either the owner manumitting the slave, or a third party purchasing and freeing the slave.
The Quran prescribes kind treatment of slaves.[36][34] Verse 4:36 calls for good treatment to slaves. The Quran recognizes the humanity of slaves,[43] by calling them "believers", recognizing their desire to be free, and recognizing female slaves' aversion to prostitution.[44] Several verses list slaves as members of the household, sometimes alongside wives, children and other relatives.[43]
The Quran recognizes slaves as morally and spiritually equal to free people.
The Quran recognizes slavery as a source of injustice, as it places the freeing of slaves on the same level as feeding the poor.[38] Nevertheless, the Quran doesn't abolish slavery. One reason given is that slavery was a major part of the 7th century socioeconomic system, and it abolishing it would not have been practical.[38] Most interpretations of the Quran agree that the Quran envisions an ideal society as one in which slavery no longer exists.[38][37]
Slaves are mentioned in at least twenty-nine verses of the Quran, most of these are Medinan and refer to the
There are many common features between the institution of slavery in the Quran and that of neighboring cultures. However, the Quranic institution had some unique new features.
Ma malakat aymanuhum
The most common term in the Qur'an to refer to slaves is the expression ma malakat aymanuhum or milk al-yamin
Prophet's traditions
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The corpus of hadith attributed to Muhammad follows the general lines of Quranic teaching on slavery and contains a large store of reports enjoining kindness toward slaves.[56][57]
Some modern Muslim authors [who?] have interpreted this as an indication that Muhammad envisioned a gradual abolition of slavery, while Murray Gordon characterizes Muhammad's approach to slavery as reformist rather than revolutionary. He did not set out to abolish slavery, but rather to improve the conditions of slaves by urging his followers to treat their slaves humanely and free them as a way of expiating one's sins. According to sahih (authentic) hadith Muhammad encouraged gifting of slaves to be a better alternative to setting them free.[58] When the people of Banu Qurayzah were defeated, he ordered some of the captives to be exchanged to purchase horses and arms.[59] Gordon argues that Muhammad instead assured the legitimacy of slavery in Islam by lending it his moral authority. Likely justifications for his attitude toward slavery included the precedent of Jewish and Christian teachings of his time as well as pragmatic considerations.[60]
The most notable of Muhammad's slaves were:
Traditional Islamic jurisprudence
Source of slaves
Traditional
Treatment
In the instance of illness it would be required for the slave to be looked after. Manumission is considered a meritorious act. Based on the Quranic verse (24:33), Islamic law permits a slave to ransom himself upon consent of his master through a contract known as mukataba.[23] Azizah Y. al-Hibri, a professor of Law specializing in Islamic jurisprudence, states that both the Quran and Hadith are repeatedly exhorting Muslims to treat their slaves well and that Muhammad showed this both in action and in words.[68] Levy concurs, adding that "cruelty to them was forbidden."[69] Al-Hibri quotes the famous last speech of Muhammad and other hadiths emphasizing that all believers, whether free or enslaved, are siblings.[68] Lewis explains, "the humanitarian tendency of the Quran and the early caliphs in the Islamic empire, was to some extent counteracted by other influences,"[3] notably the practice of various conquered people and countries Muslims encountered, especially in provinces previously under Roman law. In spite of this, Lewis also states, "Islamic practice still represented a vast improvement on that inherited from antiquity, from Rome, and from Byzantium."[3] Murray Gordon writes: "It was not surprising that Muhammad, who accepted the existing socio-political order, looked upon slavery as part of the natural order of things. His approach to what was already an age-old institution was reformist and not revolutionary. The Prophet had not in mind to bring about the abolition of slavery. Rather, his purpose was to improve the conditions of slaves by correcting abuses and appealing to the conscience of his followers to treat them humanely.[70] The adoption of slaves as members of the family was common, according to Levy. If a slave was born and brought up in the master's household he was never sold, except in exceptional circumstances.[69]
Sexual intercourse
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Slave women were required mainly as concubines and domestic workers. A Muslim slaveholder was entitled by law to the sexual enjoyment of his slave women. While free women might own male slaves, they had no such right;
In ancient Arabian custom, the child of a freeman by his slave was also a slave unless he was recognized and liberated by his father.
There is no limit on the number of female concubines a male master may possess.[82] However, the general marital laws are to be observed, such as not having sexual relations with the sister of a female slave.[23][81] In Islam "men are enjoined to marry free women in the first instance, but if they cannot afford the bridewealth for free women, they are told to marry slave women rather than engage in wrongful acts."[83] One rationale given for recognition of concubinage in Islam is that "it satisfied the sexual desire of the female slaves and thereby prevented the spread of immorality in the Muslim community."[84] A slave master could have sex with his female slave only while she was not married. This attempt to require sexual exclusivity for female slaves was rare in antiquity, when female slaves generally had no claim to an exclusive sexual relationship.[85] According to Sikainga, "in reality, however, female slaves in many Muslim societies were prey for members of their owners' household, their neighbors, and their guests."[84]
In Shiite jurisprudence, it is unlawful for a master of a female slave to grant a third party the use of her for sexual relations. The Shiite scholar
Under the
Legal status
Within
According to Lewis, this reduction resulted in Arabs who wanted slaves having to look elsewhere to avoid the restrictions in the Quran, meaning an increase of importing of slaves from non-Muslim lands,
In theory, free-born Muslims could not be enslaved, and the only way that a non-Muslim could be enslaved was being captured in the course of holy war.
Rights and restrictions
"Morally as well as physically the slave is regarded in law as an inferior being," Levy writes.[100] Under Islamic law, a slave possesses a composite quality of being both a person and a possession.[23] The slave is entitled to receive sustenance from the master, which includes shelter, food, clothing, and medical attention. It is a requirement for this sustenance to be of the same standard generally found in the locality and it is also recommended for the slave to have the same standard of food and clothing as the master. If the master refuses to provide the required sustenance, the slave may complain to a judge[how?], who may then penalize the master through sale of her or his goods as necessary for the slave's keep. If the master does not have sufficient wealth to facilitate this, she or he must either sell, hire out, or manumit the slave as ordered. Slaves also have the right to a period of rest during the hottest parts of the day during the summer.[101]
The spiritual status of a Muslim slave was identical to a Muslim free person, with some exemptions made for the slave. For example, it is not mandatory for Muslim slaves to attend Friday prayers or go for Hajj, even though both are mandatory for free Muslims.
Evidence from slaves is rarely viable in a court of law. According to the most popular Sharia manual by Imam Shafi, the very first requirement for a legal testimony to be acceptable from a witness is that the witness must be free.
By the view of some
The mahr that is given for marriage to a female slave is taken by her owner, whereas all other women possess it absolutely for themselves.[108]
A slave was not allowed to become a judge, but could become a subordinate officer.[102]
Manumission and abolition
The Quran and Hadith, the primary Islamic texts, make it a praiseworthy act for masters to set their slaves free. There are numerous ways in Islamic law under which a slave may become free:
- An act of piety by the owner.[109]
- the mukataba contract: the slave and master draw a contract whereby the master will grant the slave freedom in exchange for a period of employment,[109] or a certain sum of money (payable in installments).[110] The master must allow the slave to earn money.[23][109] Such a contract is recommended by the Qur'an.[109]
- A female slave who gives birth to her owner's child becomes an umm walad and becomes automatically free upon the death of her owner.[80][110] The child would be automatically free and equal to the owner's other children.[111]
- The owner can promise, either verbally[109] or in writing that the slave is free upon the owner's death. Such a slave is known as a mudabbar.[110]
- A Muslim who has committed certain sins, such as involuntary manslaughter or perjury, is required to free a slave as an expiation.[112]
- Anytime the owner of the slave declares the slave to be free the slave becomes automatically free, even if the owner made the statement accidentally or jokingly.[109] For example, if a slave owner said "You’re free once you’ve finished this task", intending to mean "you’re done with work for the day", the slave would become free despite the owner's ambiguous statement.[113]
- A slave is freed automatically if it is discovered the slave is related to the master; this could happen, for example, when someone purchases a slave who happens to be a relative.[109]
Gordon opines that while Islamic jurisprudence considered manumission as one way of atonement of sin, but other means of atonement also existed: for example, giving charity to the poor was considered superior to freeing a slave.[114] And while Islam made freeing a slave a meritorious act, it was usually not a requirement,[35] making it possible for a devout Muslim to still own a slave.[111] Richard Francis Burton stated that sometimes slaves refused freedom due to lack of employable skills, as freedom from the master meant the slave might go hungry.[115]
According to
Some scholars hold that the abolition of slavery was one of the aims of Islam, a view that Islamic feminists scholar Kecia Ali finds well intentioned but ahistorical and simplistic.[117] She suggest that while there was definitely an "emancipatory ethic" (encouragement for freeing slaves) in Islamic jurisprudence and that "it is possible to view slavery as inconsistent with basic Qur'anic precepts of justice and human equality before God",[117] slavery was also "marginal to the Qur'anic worldview" and "there has not been a strong internally developed critique of past or present slaveholding practices".[117] The subsequent shift in attitudes within Islam towards slavery have also been compared to similar shifts within Christianity towards Biblically sanctioned slavery, which was widespread in the late antique world in which both the Bible and Quran arose.[118]
Modern interpretations
Abolitionism
In the Ottoman Empire, restrictions on the slave trade began to be introduced during the eighteenth century, in the context of Ottoman-Russian warfare. Bilateral agreements between the Ottoman and Russian empires enabled both sides to retrieve captives taken during war in return for ransom payments. Ransoming of enslaved war captives had been common before this, but had depended on the agreement of a captive's owner; by establishing this as a legal right, the agreements restricted the rights of slaveowners and contributed to the development of the international law concept of "prisoner of war."[119] The abolitionist movement starting in the late 18th century in Western Europe[120] led to gradual changes concerning the institution of slavery in Muslim lands both in doctrine and in practice.[23] One of the first religious decrees comes from the two highest dignitaries of the Hanafi and Maliki rites in the Ottoman Empire. These religious authorities declared that slavery is lawful in principle but it is regrettable in its consequences. They expressed two religious considerations in their support for abolition of slavery: "the initial enslaving of the people concerned comes under suspicion of illegality by reason of the present-day expansion of Islam in their countries; masters no longer comply with the rules of good treatment which regulate their rights and shelter them from wrong-doing."[121]
According to Brunschvig, although the total abolition of slavery might seem a reprehensible innovation and contrary to the Quran and the practice of early Muslims, the realities of the modern world caused a "discernible evolution in the thought of many educated Muslims before the end of the 19th century." These Muslims argued that Islam on the whole has "bestowed an exceptionally favorable lot on the victims of slavery" and that the institution of slavery is linked to the particular economic and social stage in which Islam originated. According to the influential thesis of Ameer Ali, the Qur’an disapproved of slavery, but Muhammad could
not abolish the institution overnight as it would have disrupted society and economy. The Prophet thus ordered an immediate
betterment in the status and treatment of slaves, and encouraged manumission, trusting
that slavery would soon die out.
According to Brockopp, in the Ottoman Empire and elsewhere the manumission contract (kitaba) was used by the state to give slaves the means to buy their freedom and thereby end slavery as an institution. Some authorities issued condemnations of slavery, stating that it violated Quranic ideals of equality and freedom. Subsequently, even religious conservatives came to accept that slavery was contrary to Islamic principles of justice and equality.[124]
Contemporary
By the 1950s–1960s, a majority of Muslims had accepted the abolition of slavery as religiously legitimate.
Sayyid Qutb (1906-1966) wrote in Fi Zilal al-Quran (a tafsir) that slavery was adopted by Islam at a time it was practiced world-wide for a period of time "until the world devised a new code of practise during war other than enslavement."[131] Qutb's brother, Muhammad Qutb, contrasted sexual relations between Muslim slave-owners and their female slaves with what he saw as the widespread practice of pre-marital sex in Europe.[132]
Abul A'la Maududi (1903-1979) wrote:
Islam has clearly and categorically forbidden the primitive practice of capturing a free man, to make him a slave or to sell him into slavery. On this point the clear and unequivocal words of Muhammad are as follows:
"There are three categories of people against whom I shall myself be a plaintiff on the Day of Judgement. Of these three, one is he who enslaves a free man, then sells him and eats this money" (al-Bukhari and Ibn Majjah).
The words of this Tradition of the Prophet are also general, they have not been qualified or made applicable to a particular nation, race, country or followers of a particular religion. ... After this the only form of slavery which was left in Islamic society was the prisoners of war, who were captured on the battlefield. These prisoners of war were retained by the Muslim Government until their government agreed to receive them back in exchange for Muslim soldiers captured by them ...[133]
William Clarence-Smith[134] criticized the above two as: "dogged refusal of Mawlana Mawdudi to give up on slavery"[135] and the notable "evasions and silences of Muhammad Qutb".[136][137]
When Islam came, for the situations where people were taken into slavery (e.g. debt), Islam imposed Shari’ah solutions to those situations other than slavery. ... It (Islam) made the existing slave and owner form a business contract, based upon the freedom, not upon slavery ... As for the situation of war, ... it clarified the rule of the captive in that either they are favoured by releasing without any exchange, or they are ransomed for money or exchanged for Muslims or non-Muslim citizens of the Caliphate.[138]
The website of the organization stresses that because sharia historically was responding to a contract, not the institution of slavery, a future caliphate could not re-introduce slavery.[139]
In 2014,
In response to the Nigerian extremist group
Notable enslaved people and freedmen
- Bilal ibn Rabah
- Ammar ibn Yasir
- Suhayb the Roman
- Ata ibn Abi Rabah
- Wahshi ibn Harb
- Malik Ambar
- Alam al-Malika
- Qutuz
- Baibars
- Qutb al-Din Aibak
- Iltutmish
- Malik Kafur
See also
- History of slavery in the Muslim world
- History of slavery
- Slavery and religion
- Balkan slave trade
- Black Sea slave trade
- Red Sea slave trade
- Trans-Saharan slave trade
- Slavery in ancient Greece
- Slavery in ancient Rome
- Slavery in antiquity
- Slavery in medieval Europe
- Slavery in modern Africa
- Slavery in 21st-century Islamism
- Slaves freed by Abu Bakr
- Anjasha al-Hadi
- Cariye
References
Notes
- ^ The term's translations has many variations:
- Abdullah Yusuf Ali: "those whom your right hands possess".
- M. H. Shakir: "those whom your right hands possess".Shakir, M. H. (Ed.). (n.d.). The Quran. Medford, MA: Perseus Digital Library. Surah 4:24
- Hughes, T. P.(1885). In A Dictionary of Islam: Being a Cyclopædia of the Doctrines, Rites, Ceremonies, and Customs, together with the Technical and Theological Terms, of the Muhammadan Religion. London: W. H. Allen & Co.
- N. J. Dawood: "those whom you own as slaves."N. J. Dawood, "The Koran," Penguin Classics, Penguin Books, 1999 edition.
- Dr Kamal Omar: "as except those whom your right hands held in trust'"[1] Archived 2021-03-22 at the Wayback Machine
- shariah practice of spoils of war.
Citations
- ^ a b Brockopp, Jonathan E., “Slaves and Slavery”, in: Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān, General Editor: Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Georgetown University, Washington DC.
- ^ Brunschvig, R., “ʿAbd”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs.
- ^ a b c d e f g Lewis 1994, Ch.1 Archived 2001-04-01 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c d Dror Ze’evi (2009). "Slavery". In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 2017-02-23. Retrieved 2017-02-23.
- ISBN 9781107108295
- ^ Segal 2002, p. 4.
- ^ Chase 2003, p. 98-99.
- ^ Lapidus 2014, p. 195.
- ^ Clarence-Smith 2006, pp. 2–5.
- ^ Lewis 1990, p. 13–14.
- ^ "Focus on the slave trade". May 25, 2017. Archived from the original on May 25, 2017. Retrieved July 21, 2019.
- ^ ISBN 978-0813044828.
- ^ Clarence-Smith 2006, pp. 120–122.
- ISBN 0333643232.
- ^ Clarence-Smith 2006, pp. 110–116.
- ISBN 0810841029
- ^ Segal, page 206. See later in article.
- ^ Segal, page 222. See later in article.
- ^ The Quran with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English By Ali Ünal page 1323 Archived 2016-06-16 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān, Slaves and Slavery
- Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p.36
- ^ Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ a b Lewis (1992) p. 4
- ^ Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Slaves and Slavery
- ^ Mendelsohn (1949) pp. 54—58
- ^ a b John L Esposito (1998) p. 79
- ^ a b Quran 2:177,9:60
- ^ "Bernard Lewis on Slavery in Islam (An Analytical Study)" (PDF). Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-03-30. Retrieved 2017-03-29.
- ISBN 978-0415213042, pp. 31-32
- ^ ISBN 9780941533300. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-02-26. Retrieved 2023-02-26.
- ISBN 978-0521784306.
The religious requirement that new slaves be pagans and need for continued imports to maintain slave population made Africa an important source of slaves for the Islamic world. (...) In Islamic tradition, slavery was perceived as a means of converting non-Muslims. One task of the master was religious instruction and theoretically Muslims could not be enslaved. Conversion (of a non-Muslim to Islam) did not automatically lead to emancipation, but assimilation into Muslim society was deemed a prerequisite for emancipation.
- ^ .
2. The Kor'an. The Religious Ethic. a.—Islam, like its two parent monotheisms, Judaism and Christianity, has never preached the abolition of slavery as a doctrine, but it has followed their example (though in a very different fashion) in endeavouring to moderate the institution and mitigate its legal and moral aspects. Spiritually, the slave has the same value as the free man, and the same eternity is in store for his soul
- ^ Scarecrow Press. pp. 48–9.
The Qur'anic injunctions were such as to mitigate the effects of slavery and to provide considerable encouragement for manumission. Kindness to slaves is enjoined in the following verse: [2:177]. In this verse, kindness to slaves is enjoined along with goodness to parents, kindsmen and orphans. Elsewhere the Qur'an says [90:4116].
- ^ a b c d Bernard Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East. Oxford University Press. p. 6.
[The Quran] recommends, without requiring, his liberation by purchase or manumission. The freeing of slaves is recommended both for the expiation of sins (IV:92; V:92; LVIII:3) and as an act of simple benevolence (11: 177; XXIV:33; XC:13).
- ^ a b Jonathan E. Brockopp. "Slaves and slavery". In Jane Dammen McAuliffe (ed.). Encyclopaedia of the Quran. Vol. 5. p. 59.
Finally, the important role played by slaves as members of this community may help explain the Quran's emphasis on manumission and kind treatment.
- ^ a b c Bernard K. Freamon. Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures. Brill. pp. 122–3.
Before embarking on the typological analysis it is also important to note at the outside that all of the important Quranic rules on slavery are emancipatory. None of the Quran provisions actively further, promote, or counsel the continuation of the pre-Islamic institutions of slavery. Rather, as I and others have argued elsewhere, the message of the Quran appears to be one that exhorts humankind to work toward the attainment of a slavery-free society.
- ^ ISBN 9781118972311.
The Quran clearly recognizes that slavery is a source of inequity in society becaise it frequently recommends freeing slaves, along with feeding and clothing the poor as part of living a moral life (90:12-19)...the Quran does not abolish the institution of slavery...slavery was an integral part of the economic system at the time the Quran was revealed; abolition of slavery would have requires an overhaul of the entire socioeconomic system. Therefore, instead of abolishing slavery outright, virtually all interpreters agree that the Quran established an ideal toward which society should: a society in which no one person would be enslaved to another.
- ^ (Quran 2:177, 24:33, 90:13)
- ^ (Quran 4:92, 5:92, 58:3)
- ^ a b c d Jonathan E. Brockopp. "Slaves and slavery". In Jane Dammen McAuliffe (ed.). Encyclopaedia of the Quran. Vol. 5. p. 58.
- ISBN 9781597841238.
- ^ a b Jonathan E. Brockopp. "Slaves and slavery". In Jane Dammen McAuliffe (ed.). Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. Vol. 5. p. 57.
The Qur'an, however, does not consider slaves to be mere chattel; their humanity is directly addressed in references to their beliefs (q 2:221; 4:25, 92), their desire for manumission and their feelings about being forced into prostitution (q 24:33)...The human aspect of slaves is further reinforced by reference to them as members of the private household, sometimes along with wives or children (q.v.; q 23:6; 24:58; 33:50; 70:30) and once in a long list of such members (q 24:31). This incorporation into the intimate family is consistent with the view of slaves in the ancient near east and quite in contrast to Western plantation slavery as it developed in the early modern period.
- ^ ISBN 978-9004116283, pp. 131
- ^ ISBN 9781118972311.
The Quran acknowledges that slaves do not have the same legal standing as free people; instead they are treated as minors for whom the owners are responsible. But it recommends that unmarried Muslims marry their slaves (24:32), indicating that it considers slaves and free people morally equal.
- ^ Jalalayninterpret as "You and they are equal in faith, so do not refrain from marrying them".
- ^ Sikainga (2005), p.5-6
- ^ Clarence-Smith 2006, p. 198.
- ^ a b Bernard Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford University Press. p. 5.
But Qur'anic legislation, subsequently confirmed and elaborated in the Holy Law, brought two major changes to ancient slavery which were to have far-reaching effects. One of these was the presumption of freedom; the other, the ban on the enslavement of free persons except in strictly defined circumstances.
- ^ Quran 24:33
- ^ Gordon 1989, page 37.
- ^ www
.alhakam .org /what-is-the-meaning-of-those-whom-your-right-hand-possesses-milk-al-yamin - ^ a b Jonathan E. Brockopp (2006). "Slaves and slavery". In Jane Dammen McAuliffe (ed.). Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. Vol. 5. Brill. pp. 57–58.
- ^ a b Bernard Freamon. Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures. pp. 129–130.
- ^ Clarence-Smith 2006, pp. 198–200.
- .
Tradition delights in asserting that the slave's lot was among the latest preoccupations of the Prophet. It has quite a large store of sayings and anecdotes, attributed to the Prophet or to his Companions, enjoining real kindness towards this inferior social class.
- ISBN 978-0-19-505326-5. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-05-19. Retrieved 2020-03-04.
This point is emphasized and elaborated in innumerable hadiths (traditions), in which the Prophet is quoted as urging considerate and sometimes even equal treatment for slaves, denouncing cruelty, harshness, or even discourtesy, recommending the liberation of slaves, and reminding the Muslims that his apostolate was to free and slave alike.
- ^ "Sahih al-Bukhari 2592, Sunnah.com Saying and Teaching of Prophet Muhammad". Archived from the original on 29 March 2023. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
- ^ "The History of al-Tabari [Ta'rikh al-rusul wa'l-muluk]"., Vol 8, p. 39
- ISBN 9780941533300.
- ^ "Aydin, p.17 (citing Ibn Abdilberr, İstîâb, IV, p. 1868; Nawavî, Tahzib al Asma, I, p. 162; Ibn al Asîr, Usd al Ghâbe, VI, p. 160)". Archived from the original on July 21, 2011. Retrieved July 21, 2019.
- ^ Hughes (1996), p. 370
- ^ a b Brunschvig, R. (1986). "ʿAbd". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Brill. p. 26.
- ^ a b Bernard Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford University Press. p. 6.
- ^ Jonathan A.C. Brown. Slavery and Islam. Oneworld Publications. p. 85.
Unenslavability extended to non-Muslims living under Muslim rule. There was agreement that these dhimmis could not be enslaved even if they rebelled against the Muslim government. Even if enemies from outside the Abode of Islam captured dhimmis living under Muslim rule and took them as slaves, they were not legally owned according to the Shariah.
- ^ Lewis 1990, page 9.
- ^ Clarence-Smith 2006, p. 33: "The rider was sometimes added that such people should have been 'rightfully enslaved', although what this meant was far from clear"
- ^ a b Azizah Y. al-Hibri, 2003
- ^ a b c Levy (1957) p. 77
- ^ Gordon 1987, page 19.
- ^ "23. Surah Al Muminoon (The Believers) - Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi - Tafhim al-Qur'an - The Meaning of the Qur'an". www.searchtruth.com. Archived from the original on 2022-07-20. Retrieved 2022-07-20.
- ^ Brunschvig. 'Abd; Encyclopedia of Islam, page 13.
- ^ Lewis 1990, page 14.
- ^ Kecia Ali (2010), Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam, Harvard University Press, p. 177
- ^ a b Sikainga (1996) p.5
- Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, Vol. 2 pp. 112-113 footnote 44; Also see commentary on verses 23:1-6: Vol. 3, notes 7-1, p. 241; 2000, Islamic Publications
- ^ Tafsir Ibn Kathir 4:24
- ^ Lewis 1990, page 24.
- ^ Lewis 1990, page 91.
- ^ a b [2] Archived 2017-08-01 at the Wayback Machine Umm al-Walad, "Mother of the son. Refers to a slave woman impregnated by her owner…", Oxford Islamic Studies Online
- ^ a b c Paul Lovejoy (2000) p.2
- ^ Kecia Ali (2010), Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam, Harvard University Press, p. 176
- ^ Nashat (1999) p. 42
- ^ a b Sikainga (1996), p. 22
- ISBN 9780674059177. Archivedfrom the original on 2018-11-04. Retrieved 2018-06-06.
- ^ Shaykh al-Tusi stated in Al-Mabsut, Volume 3 page 57
- ^ al-Muhaqiq al-Kurki in Jame'a al-Maqasid, Volume 6 page 62, Allamah al-Hilli in Al-Tadkira, Volume 2 page 210 and Ali Asghar Merwarid in Al-Yanabi al-Fiqhya, Volume 17 page 187
- ^ Lewis 85–86
- ^ John Joseph, Review of Race and Color in Islam by Bernard Lewis, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 5, No. 3. (Jun., 1974), pp. 368-371.
- ^ Lewis 1990, page 7
- ^ a b Schimmel (1992) p. 67
- ^ Esposito (2002) p.148
- ^ Fazlur Rahman, Islam, University of Chicago Press, p.38
- ^ Murray Gordon, "Slavery in the Arab World Archived 2018-11-04 at the Wayback Machine." New Amsterdam Press, New York, 1989. Originally published in French by Editions Robert Laffont, S.A. Paris, 1987. Page 19.
- ^ a b Lewis (1990) p. 10
- ^ Manning (1990) p.28
- ^ John Esposito (1998) p.40
- ^ Lewis(1990) 106
- ^ Murray Gordon, "Slavery in the Arab World." New Amsterdam Press, New York, 1989. Originally published in French by Editions Robert Laffont, S.A. Paris, 1987, page 28.
- ^ Levy, p.78
- ^ Khalil b. Ishaq, quoted in Levy (1957) p. 77
- ^ .
- ^ "Imam Shafi, Umdat as-Salik (Reliance Of The Traveller The Classic Manual Of Islamic Sacred Law Indexed)". Retrieved 18 June 2023. Section o24.2
- ^ Except according to Hanafis, who make a free man liable to retaliation in cases of murder
- ^ Levy (1957) pp. 78-79
- ^ Khalil bin Ishaq, II, 4
- ^ Sachau, p.173
- ^ Levy, p.114
- ^ a b c d e f g Levy pp. 80-81
- ^ a b c "Slavery in Islam". BBC. Archived from the original on 2022-02-25. Retrieved 2019-12-21.
- ^ a b Gordon 1987, pp. 42-43.
- ^ Lamin Sanneh. The Crown And The Turban: Muslims And West African Pluralism. Routledge. p. 51.
- ^ Jonathan A.C. Brown. Slavery and Islam. Oneworld Publications. p. 86.
- ^ Gordon 1987, page 40.
- ^ Burton, Richard Francis. "Tale of the Second Eunuch". The Book of The Thousand Nights And A Night. Archived from the original on 2012-04-06. Retrieved 2012-07-03.
- ^ Makarem Shirazi, Naser (19 August 2018). "ممنوع نشدن اصل برده داری در اسلام". Archived from the original on 2020-07-12. Retrieved 2020-07-12.
در بعضى از روايات اسلامى آمده است: بردگان بعد از هفت سال خود به خود آزاد مى شوند، چنانكه از امام صادق(عليه السلام) مى خوانيم: «كسى كه ايمان داشته باشد بعد از هفت سال آزاد مى شود صاحبش بخواهد يا نخواهد و به خدمت گرفتن كسى كه ايمان داشته بعد از هفت سال حلال نيست»
- ^ a b c Ali 2004.
- ^ Hazelton 2010, p. 107.
- ISBN 9780198785415.
- ^ Oldfield, John (2011-02-07). "British Anti-slavery". British History in depth. BBC History. Archived from the original on 2016-09-25. Retrieved 2016-10-03.
- ^ Brunschvig, R. (1986). "ʿAbd". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Brill. pp. 37–38.
- ^ Clarence-Smith, William Gervase. "5. Islamic Abolitionism in the Western Indian Ocean From c. 1800". Degruyter. Yale University Press.
- ^ "Slavery and the Slave Trades in the Indian Ocean and Arab Worlds: Global Connections and Disconnections" (PDF). Yale University. November 8, 2008. p. 6. Retrieved February 19, 2024.
- ^ Jonathan E. Brockopp (2006). "Slaves and slavery". In Jane Dammen McAuliffe (ed.). Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. Vol. 5. Brill. p. 60.
- ^ a b Clarence-Smith 2006, p. 221.
- ^ a b "Slavery in Islam". BBC. 2009-09-07. Retrieved 2023-06-24.
- ^ a b c Khaled Abou El Fadl (2009). The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists. HarperOne. pp. 255–266.
- ^ Harvard Human Rights Journal. 11 (1): 60–61.
- ^ "Author of Saudi Curriculums Advocates Slavery". SIA News. Archived from the original on October 18, 2005. Retrieved 27 May 2014. Alt URL
- ^ "Taming a Neo-Qutubite Fanatic Part 1" (PDF). salafi publications, abdurrahman.org. p. 24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 May 2014. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
Questioner: ... one of the contemporary writers is of the view that this religion, at its inception, was compelled to accept the institution of slavery ... [but] ... that the intent of the Legislator [i.e. God] is to gradually end this institution of slavery. So what is your view on this?
[Source of Q&A: Cassette Recording dated 4/8/1416 and subsequently verified by the Shaikh himself with a few minor alterations to the wording.] [dead link]
Shaikh Salih alFawzaan: These are words of falsehood (baatil) ... despite that many of the writers and thinkers -- and we do not say scholars -- repeat these words. Rather we say that they are thinkers (mufakkireen), just as they call them. And it is unfortunate, that they also call them `Du'at' (callers). ... These words are falsehood ... This is deviation and a false accusation against Islaam. And if it had not been for the excuse of ignorance [because] we excuse them on account of (their) ignorance so we do not say that they are Unbelievers because they are ignorant and are blind followers .... Otherwise, these statements are very dangerous and if a person said them deliberately he would become apostate and leave Islaam. ..." - Fi Zilal al-Qur'an, Surah Tawbah (3/1669) also in Tafsir of Surah Baqarah (/230), tafsir of Surah Mu'minoon (4/2455), tafsir of Surah Muhammad (6/3285)
- ^ Qutb, Muhammad, Islam, the Misunderstood Religion, Markazi Maktabi Islami, Delhi-6, 1992 p.50
- ^ From "Human Rights in Islam" by 'Allamah Abu Al-'A'la Mawdudi. Chapter 3, subsection 5 [3] Archived 2007-02-03 at the Wayback Machine
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- ^ Clarence-Smith 2006, p. 186.
- Taqiuddin al-Nabhani, Volume 3, Slavery Section
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Islam has devised solutions and strategies for ending slavery, but this does not mean that slavery is condemned in Islam. If, in a legitimate war, Muslims gain dominance over unbelievers and take them captive, in the hand of the victorious Muslims they are considered slaves and the ordinances of slavery apply to them. [source: Ettela'at, 10 Mehr 1372/October 1, 1993]
- ^ Transcript of TV interview with Dr. Soroush by Dariush Sajjadi, Broadcast, Homa TV, 9 March 2006 Archived 2015-09-23 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 15 July 2009
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- ^ Jonathan A.C. Brown. Slavery and Islam. Oneworld Publications. pp. 219–220.
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- ^ Salma Abdelaziz, "ISIS states its justification for the enslavement of women" Archived 2017-06-21 at the Wayback Machine, CNN, October 13, 2014
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- ^ "To have and to hold: Jihadists boast of selling captive women as concubines" Archived 2017-08-29 at the Wayback Machine, The Economist, October 18, 2014
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Sources
- Lewis, Bernard (1990). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505326-5.
- Segal, Ronald (2002-02-09). Islam's Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-374-52797-6.
- Chase, Kenneth Warren (2003). Firearms: A Global History to 1700. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82274-9.
- Lapidus, Ira M. (2014). A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-51430-9.
- Ali, Kecia (2 February 2004). "Islam and Slavery". The Feminist Sexual Ethics Project, Brandeis University. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 24 September 2020.
- Hazelton, Jacqueline L. (25 October 2010). Beyond Slavery: Overcoming Its Religious and Sexual Legacies. Springer. ISBN 978-0-230-11389-3.
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- Lovejoy, Paul E. (2000). Transformations in Slavery. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78430-1.
- Manning, Patrick (1990). Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-34867-6.
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- Ingrams, W. H. (1967). Zanzibar. UK: Routledge. ISBN 0-7146-1102-6.
Further reading
- Habeeb Akande, Illuminating the Darkness: Blacks and North Africans in Islam (Ta Ha 2012)
- Al-Hibri, Azizah Y. (2003). "An Islamic Perspective on Domestic Violence". 27 Fordham International Law Journal 195. Archived from the original on 2021-04-11. Retrieved 2018-06-06.
- P.J. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; ISSN 1573-3912.
- Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila (2002). Islam: A Thousand Years of Faith and Power. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09422-1.
- Davis, Robert C. (2004). Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-4551-9.
- ISBN 0-19-511233-4. - First Edition 1991; Expanded Edition : 1992.
- Frank, Alison (2012). "The Children of the Desert and the Laws of the Sea: Austria, Great Britain, the Ottoman Empire and the Mediterranean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century". American Historical Review. 117 (2): 410–444. S2CID 159756171.
- Al-Mawrid. OCLC 52901690.
- Hasan, Yusuf Fadl; Gray, Richard (2002). Religion and Conflict in Sudan. Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa. ISBN 9966-21-831-9.
- Hughes, Thomas Patrick; Patrick (1996). A Dictionary of Islam. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-0672-2.
- Ed.: Holt, P. M ; Lambton, Ann; Lewis, Bernard (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29137-2.)
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - Jok, Madut Jok (2001). War and Slavery in Sudan. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1762-4.
- Juynboll (1910). Handbuch des Islamischen Gesetzes. Leyden.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Khalil bin Ishaq. Mukhtasar tr. Guidi and Santillana (Milan, 1919).
- Levy, Reuben (1957). The Social Structure of Islam. UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521091824.
- Mendelsohn, Isaac (1949). Slavery in the Ancient Near East. New York: Oxford University Press. OCLC 67564625.
- Martin, Vanessa (2005). The Qajar Pact. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 1-85043-763-7.
- Montana, Ismael (2013). The Abolition of Slavery in Ottoman Tunisia. University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0813044828.
- ISBN 0-06-009924-0.
- Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century. The Red Sea Press. ISBN 0-932415-19-9.
- Sachau (1897). Muhammedanisches Recht [cited extensively in Levy, R 'Social Structure of Islam']. Berlin, Germany.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ISBN 0-7914-1327-6.
- Sikainga, Ahmad A. (1996). Slaves Into Workers: Emancipation and Labor in Colonial Sudan. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-77694-2.
- Smiley, Will (2018). From Slaves to Prisoners of War: The Ottoman Empire, Russia and International Law. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198785415.
- Toledano, Ehud (2014). The Ottoman Slave Trade and its Suppression. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691613932.
- Tucker, Judith E.; Nashat, Guity (1999). Women in the Middle East and North Africa. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-21264-2.
- Ahmad A. Sikainga, "Shari'a Courts and the Manumission of Female Slaves in the Sudan 1898-1939 Archived 2016-04-30 at the Wayback Machine", The International Journal of African Historical Studies > Vol. 28, No. 1 (1995), pp. 1–24
External links
Media related to Slavery in Islam at Wikimedia Commons