Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
Macedonia Μακεδονία | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Capital | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Common languages | Basileus | | |||||||||||||||||||||||
• 359–336 BC | Philip II | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 336–323 BC | Alexander the Great | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 179–168 BC | Perseus (last) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 149–148 BC | Andriscus (rebel claim) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Legislature | Rise of Macedon | 359–336 BC | |||||||||||||||||||||||
338–337 BC | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
335–323 BC | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
323 BC | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
322–275 BC | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
168 BC | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Area | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
323 BC[4][5] | 5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Currency | Tetradrachm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
Macedonia ( to the south.
Before the 4th century BC, Macedonia was a small kingdom outside of the area dominated by the great
After
The Macedonian kings, who wielded
Etymology
The name Macedonia (
History
Early history and legend
The
The kingdom of Macedonia was situated along the Haliacmon and Axius rivers in Lower Macedonia, north of Mount Olympus. Historian Robert Malcolm Errington suggests that one of the earliest Argead kings established Aigai (modern Vergina) as their capital in the mid-7th century BC.[17] Before the 4th century BC, the kingdom covered a region corresponding roughly to the western and central parts of the region of Macedonia in modern Greece.[18] It gradually expanded into the region of Upper Macedonia, inhabited by the Greek Lyncestae and Elimiotae tribes, and into regions of Emathia, Eordaia, Bottiaea, Mygdonia, Crestonia, and Almopia, which were inhabited by various peoples such as Thracians and Phrygians.[note 2] Macedonia's non-Greek neighbors included Thracians, inhabiting territories to the northeast, Illyrians to the northwest, and Paeonians to the north, while the lands of Thessaly to the south and Epirus to the west were inhabited by Greeks with similar cultures to that of the Macedonians.[19]
A year after
Although Macedonia enjoyed a large degree of
Involvement in the Classical Greek world
Although initially a Persian vassal, Alexander I of Macedon fostered friendly diplomatic relations with his former Greek enemies, the Athenian and
Perdiccas II sided
Brasidas died in 422 BC, the year Athens and Sparta struck an accord, the
Although Archelaus I was faced with some internal revolts and had to fend off an invasion of Illyrians led by
Amyntas III was forced to flee his kingdom in either 393 or 383 BC (based on conflicting accounts), owing to a massive invasion by the
Alexander II (r. 370–368 BC), son of Eurydice I and Amyntas III, succeeded his father and immediately invaded Thessaly to wage war against the tagus (supreme Thessalian military leader) Alexander of Pherae, capturing the city of Larissa.[50] The Thessalians, desiring to remove both Alexander II and Alexander of Pherae as their overlords, appealed to Pelopidas of Thebes for aid; he succeeded in recapturing Larissa and, in the peace agreement arranged with Macedonia, received aristocratic hostages including Alexander II's brother and future king Philip II (r. 359–336 BC).[51] When Alexander was assassinated by his brother-in-law Ptolemy of Aloros, the latter acted as an overbearing regent for Perdiccas III (r. 368–359 BC), younger brother of Alexander II, who eventually had Ptolemy executed when reaching the age of majority in 365 BC.[52] The remainder of Perdiccas III's reign was marked by political stability and financial recovery.[53] However, an Athenian invasion led by Timotheus, son of Conon, managed to capture Methone and Pydna, and an Illyrian invasion led by Bardylis succeeded in killing Perdiccas III and 4,000 Macedonian troops in battle.[54]
Rise of Macedon
Philip II was twenty-four years old when he acceded to the throne in 359 BC.[55] Through the use of deft diplomacy, he was able to convince the Thracians under Berisades to cease their support of Pausanias, a pretender to the throne, and the Athenians to halt their support of another pretender.[56] He achieved these by bribing the Thracians and their Paeonian allies and establishing a treaty with Athens that relinquished his claims to Amphipolis.[57] He was also able to make peace with the Illyrians who had threatened his borders.[58]
Philip II spent his initial years radically transforming the Macedonian army. A reform of its organization, equipment, and training, including the introduction of the Macedonian phalanx armed with long pikes (i.e. the sarissa), proved immediately successful when tested against his Illyrian and Paeonian enemies.[59] Confusing accounts in ancient sources have led modern scholars to debate how much Philip II's royal predecessors may have contributed to these reforms and the extent to which his ideas were influenced by his adolescent years of captivity in Thebes as a political hostage during the Theban hegemony, especially after meeting with the general Epaminondas.[60]
The Macedonians, like the other Greeks, traditionally practiced
While Athens was preoccupied with the Social War (357–355 BC), Philip II retook Amphipolis from them in 357 BC and the following year recaptured Pydna and Potidaea, the latter of which he handed over to the Chalcidian League as promised in a treaty.[66] In 356 BC, he took Crenides, refounding it as Philippi, while his general Parmenion defeated the Illyrian king Grabos II of the Grabaei.[67] During the 355–354 BC siege of Methone, Philip II lost his right eye to an arrow wound, but managed to capture the city and treated the inhabitants cordially, unlike the Potidaeans, who had been enslaved.[note 6]
Philip II then involved Macedonia in the
Philip II had some early involvement with the Achaemenid Empire, especially by supporting
After campaigning against the Thracian ruler
Over the next few years, Philip II reformed local governments in Thessaly, campaigned against the Illyrian ruler
When Philip II married
Empire
Modern scholars have argued over the possible role of
In 335 BC, Alexander
Throughout his military career, Alexander won every battle that he personally commanded.
Alexander perhaps undercut his own rule by demonstrating signs of
Meanwhile, in Greece, the
When Alexander the Great died at Babylon in 323 BC, his mother Olympias immediately accused Antipater and his faction of poisoning him, although there is no evidence to confirm this.[116] With no official heir apparent, the Macedonian military command split, with one side proclaiming Alexander's half-brother Philip III Arrhidaeus (r. 323–317 BC) as king and the other siding with the infant son of Alexander and Roxana, Alexander IV (r. 323–309 BC).[117] Except for the Euboeans and Boeotians, the Greeks also immediately rose up in a rebellion against Antipater known as the Lamian War (323–322 BC).[118] When Antipater was defeated at the 323 BC Battle of Thermopylae, he fled to Lamia where he was besieged by the Athenian commander Leosthenes. A Macedonian army led by Leonnatus rescued Antipater by lifting the siege.[119] Antipater defeated the rebellion, yet his death in 319 BC left a power vacuum wherein the two proclaimed kings of Macedonia became pawns in a power struggle between the diadochi, the former generals of Alexander's army.[120]
A
Forming an alliance with Ptolemy, Antigonus, and Lysimachus, Cassander had his officer Nicanor capture the Munichia fortress of Athens' port town Piraeus in defiance of Polyperchon's decree that Greek cities should be free of Macedonian garrisons, sparking the Second War of the Diadochi (319–315 BC).[126] Given a string of military failures by Polyperchon, in 317 BC, Philip III, by way of his politically engaged wife Eurydice II of Macedon, officially replaced him as regent with Cassander.[127] Afterwards, Polyperchon desperately sought the aid of Olympias in Epirus.[127] A joint force of Epirotes, Aetolians, and Polyperchon's troops invaded Macedonia and forced the surrender of Philip III and Eurydice's army, allowing Olympias to execute the king and force his queen to commit suicide.[128] Olympias then had Nicanor and dozens of other Macedonian nobles killed, but by the spring of 316 BC, Cassander had defeated her forces, captured her, and placed her on trial for murder before sentencing her to death.[129]
Cassander married Philip II's daughter
Hellenistic era
The beginning of
Cassander died in 297 BC, and his sickly son
War broke out between Pyrrhus and Demetrius in 290 BC when
In 280 BC, Pyrrhus embarked on a campaign in
Pyrrhus lost much of his support among the Macedonians in 273 BC when his unruly Gallic mercenaries plundered the royal cemetery of Aigai.[147] Pyrrhus pursued Antigonus II in the Peloponnese, yet Antigonus II was ultimately able to recapture Macedonia.[148] Pyrrhus was killed while besieging Argos in 272 BC, allowing Antigonus II to reclaim the rest of Greece.[149] He then restored the Argead dynastic graves at Aigai and annexed the Kingdom of Paeonia.[150]
The
In 251 BC,
The Achaean League managed to capture
Aratus sent an embassy to Antigonus III in 226 BC seeking an unexpected alliance now that the reformist king
Conflict with Rome
In 215 BC, at the height of the
The Aetolian League concluded a
While Philip V was busy fighting Rome's Greek allies, Rome viewed this as an opportunity to punish this former ally of Hannibal with a war that they hoped would supply a victory and require few resources.[note 12] The Roman Senate demanded that Philip V cease hostilities against neighboring Greek powers and defer to an international arbitration committee for settling grievances.[185] When the comitia centuriata finally voted in approval of the Roman Senate's declaration of war in 200 BC and handed their ultimatum to Philip V, demanding that a tribunal assess the damages owed to Rhodes and Pergamon, the Macedonian king rejected it. This marked the beginning of the Second Macedonian War (200–197 BC), with Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus spearheading military operations in Apollonia.[186]
The Macedonians successfully defended their territory for roughly two years,[187] but the Roman consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus managed to expel Philip V from Macedonia in 198 BC, forcing his men to take refuge in Thessaly.[188] When the Achaean League switched their loyalties from Macedonia to Rome, the Macedonian king sued for peace, but the terms offered were considered too stringent, and so the war continued.[188] In June 197 BC, the Macedonians were defeated at the Battle of Cynoscephalae.[189] Rome then ratified a treaty that forced Macedonia to relinquish control of much of its Greek possessions outside of Macedonia proper, if only to act as a buffer against Illyrian and Thracian incursions into Greece.[190] Although some Greeks suspected Roman intentions of supplanting Macedonia as the new hegemonic power in Greece, Flaminius announced at the Isthmian Games of 196 BC that Rome intended to preserve Greek liberty by leaving behind no garrisons and by not exacting tribute of any kind.[191] His promise was delayed by negotiations with the Spartan king Nabis, who had meanwhile captured Argos, yet Roman forces evacuated Greece in 194 BC.[192]
Encouraged by the Aetolian League and their calls to liberate Greece from the Romans, the
Failing to please all sides in various territorial disputes, the Roman Senate decided in 184/183 BC to force Philip V to abandon
Eumenes II came to Rome in 172 BC and delivered a speech to
Institutions
Division of power
At the head of
Kingship and the royal court
The earliest known government of ancient Macedonia was that of its
It is known that Macedonian kings before Philip II upheld the privileges and carried out the responsibilities of hosting foreign diplomats, determining the kingdom's foreign policies, and negotiating alliances with foreign powers.
Little is known about the
Royal pages
The
Bodyguards
Royal bodyguards served as the closest members to the king at court and on the battlefield.
Companions, friends, councils, and assemblies
The companions, including the elite
Members of the council had the right to speak freely, and although there is no direct evidence that they voted on affairs of state, it is clear that the king was at least occasionally pressured to agree to their demands.
Magistrates, the commonwealth, local government, and allied states
Antigonid Macedonian kings relied on various regional officials to conduct affairs of state.[228] This included high-ranking municipal officials, such as the military strategos and the politarch, i.e. the elected governor (archon) of a large city (polis), as well as the politico-religious office of the epistates.[note 23] No evidence exists about the personal backgrounds of these officials, although they may have been chosen among the same group of aristocratic philoi and hetairoi who filled vacancies for army officers.[215]
In
Within the
Military
Early Macedonian army
The basic structure of the
Philip II and Alexander the Great
After spending years as a political hostage in Thebes, Philip II sought to imitate the Greek example of
For his lighter missile troops, Philip II employed mercenary Cretan archers as well as Thracian, Paeonian, and Illyrian javelin throwers, slingers, and archers.[250] He hired engineers such as Polyidus of Thessaly and Diades of Pella, who were capable of building state of the art siege engines and artillery that fired large bolts.[247] Following the acquisition of the lucrative mines at Krinides (renamed Philippi), the royal treasury could afford to field a permanent, professional standing army.[251] The increase in state revenues under Philip II allowed the Macedonians to build a small navy for the first time, which included triremes.[252]
The only Macedonian cavalry units attested under Alexander were the companion cavalry,
Antigonid period military
Thanks to contemporary inscriptions from Amphipolis and Greia dated 218 and 181 BC, respectively, historians have been able to partially piece together the organization of the Antigonid army under Philip V.[note 30] From at least the time of Antigonus III Doson, the most elite Antigonid-period infantry were the peltasts, lighter and more maneuverable soldiers wielding peltai javelins, swords, and a smaller bronze shield than Macedonian phalanx pikemen, although they sometimes served in that capacity.[note 31] Among the peltasts, roughly 2,000 men were selected to serve in the elite agema vanguard, with other peltasts numbering roughly 3,000.[260] The number of peltasts varied over time, perhaps never more than 5,000 men.[note 32] They fought alongside the phalanx pikemen, divided now into chalkaspides (bronze shield) and leukaspides (white shield) regiments.[261]
The Antigonid Macedonian kings continued to expand and equip
Society and culture
Language and dialects
Following its adoption as the court language of
Religious beliefs and funerary practices
By the 5th century BC, the Macedonians and the southern Greeks worshiped more or less the
In the three royal tombs at
Economics and social class
Young Macedonian men were typically expected to engage in hunting and martial combat as a by-product of their transhumance lifestyle of herding livestock such as goats and sheep, while horse breeding and raising cattle were other common pursuits.[277] Some Macedonians engaged in farming, often with irrigation, land reclamation, and horticulture activities supported by the Macedonian state.[note 38] The Macedonian economy and state finances were mainly supported by logging and by mining valuable minerals such as copper, iron, gold, and silver.[278] The conversion of these raw materials into finished products and the sale of those products encouraged the growth of urban centers and a gradual shift away from the traditional rustic Macedonian lifestyle during the course of the 5th century BC.[279]
The Macedonian king was an
Visual arts
By the reign of
Surviving Macedonian painted artwork includes
Theatre, music and performing arts
Philip II was assassinated in 336 BC at the theatre of
Literature, education, philosophy, and patronage
In terms of early
Sports and leisure
When Alexander I of Macedon petitioned to compete in the
Dining and cuisine
Ancient Macedonia produced only a few fine foods or beverages that were highly appreciated elsewhere in the Greek world, including
The
Ethnic identity
Ancient authors and modern scholars alike disagree about the precise ethnic identity of the ancient Macedonians. The predominant viewpoint supports that the Macedonians were "truly Greeks" who had just retained a more archaic lifestyle than those living in southern parts of Greece.
Anson argues that some Hellenic authors expressed complex or even ever-changing and ambiguous ideas about the exact ethnic identity of the Macedonians, who were considered by some as barbarians and others as semi-Greek or fully Greek.[note 46] Roger D. Woodard asserts that in addition to persisting uncertainty in modern times about the proper classification of the Macedonian language and its relation to Greek, ancient authors also presented conflicting ideas about the Macedonians.[note 47] Simon Hornblower argues on the Greek identity of the Macedonians, taking into consideration their origin, language, cults and customs related to ancient Greek traditions.[317] Any preconceived ethnic differences between Greeks and Macedonians faded by 148 BC soon after the Roman conquest of Macedonia and then the rest of Greece with the defeat of the Achaean League by the Roman Republic at the Battle of Corinth (146 BC).[318]
Technology and engineering
Architecture
Macedonian architecture, although utilizing a mixture of different forms and styles from the rest of Greece, did not represent a unique or diverging style from other
Macedonian rulers also sponsored works of architecture outside of Macedonia proper. For instance, following his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), Philip II raised a round memorial building at Olympia known as the Philippeion, decorated inside with statues depicting him, his parents Amyntas III of Macedon and Eurydice I of Macedon, his wife Olympias, and his son Alexander the Great.[323]
The ruins of roughly twenty
Military technology and engineering
By the Hellenistic period, it became common for Greek states to finance the development and proliferation of ever more powerful
During the siege of
Other innovations
Although perhaps not as prolific as other areas of Greece in regards to technological innovations, there are some inventions that may have originated in Macedonia aside from siege engines and artillery. The
Currency, finances, and resources
The
State revenues were also raised by collecting
After the defeat of
Legacy
The reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great witnessed the demise of Classical Greece and the birth of Hellenistic civilization, following the spread of Greek culture to the Near East during and after Alexander's conquests.[346] Macedonians then migrated to Egypt and parts of Asia, but the intensive colonization of foreign lands sapped the available manpower in Macedonia proper, weakening the kingdom in its fight with other Hellenistic powers and contributing to its downfall and conquest by the Romans.[347] However, the diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a "precondition" for the later Roman expansion into these territories and entire basis for the Byzantine Empire, according to Errington.[348]
The ethnic Macedonian rulers of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid successor states accepted men from all over the Greek world as their hetairoi companions and did not foster a national identity like the Antigonids.
The
See also
References
Notes
- ^ Engels 2010, p. 89; Borza 1995, p. 114; Eugene N. Borza writes that the "highlanders" or "Makedones" of the mountainous regions of western Macedonia are derived from northwest Greek stock; they were akin to those who at an earlier time may have migrated south to become the historical "Dorians".
- ^ Lewis & Boardman 1994, pp. 723–724, see also Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 105–108 for the Macedonian expulsion of original inhabitants such as the Phrygians.
- Anthemousin 506 BC.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 158–159; see also Errington 1990, p. 30 for further details; the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus provided a seemingly conflicting account about Illyrian invasions occurring in 393 BC and 383 BC, which may have been representative of a single invasion led by the Illyrian king Bardylis.
- Asia Minor (modern Turkey) soon after this wedding. Müller also suspects that this marriage was one of political convenience meant to ensure the loyalty of an influential Macedonian noble house.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 171–172; Buckler 1989, pp. 63, 176–181; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 185–187.
Cawkwell contrarily provides the date of this siege as 354–353 BC. - ^ Müller 2010, pp. 172–173; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 60, 185; Hornblower 2002, p. 272; Buckler 1989, pp. 63–64, 176–181.
Conversely, Buckler provides the date of this initial campaign as 354 BC, while affirming that the second Thessalian campaign ending in the Battle of Crocus Field occurred in 353 BC. - Alexander III of Macedon as a potential suspect in the plot to assassinate Philip II of Macedon, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank discuss possible Macedonian as well as foreign suspects, such as Demosthenes and Darius III: Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 8–12.
- hegemon of the League of Corinth, with some sources calling him a regent, others a governor, others a simple general., p. 32.
N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank state that Alexander the Great left "Macedonia under the command of Antipater, in case there was a rising in Greece." Hammond & Walbank 2001 - ^ Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, p. 61; Errington 1990, p. 155.
Conversely, Errington dates Lysimachus' reunification of Macedonia by expelling Pyrrhus of Epirus as occurring in 284 BC, not 286 BC. - ^ Eckstein 2010, pp. 229–230; see also Errington 1990, pp. 186–189 for further details.
Errington is skeptical that Philip V at this point had any intentions of invading southern Italy via Illyria once the latter was secured, deeming his plans to be "more modest", Errington 1990, p. 189. - ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 86–87.
Errington 1990, pp. 202–203: "Roman desire for revenge and private hopes of famous victories were probably the decisive reasons for the outbreak of the war." - Thraciancoast as 183 BC, while Eckstein dates it as 184 BC.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 98–99; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 242, who says that "Rome ... as the sole remaining superpower ... would not accept Macedonia as a peer competitor or equal."
Klaus Bringmann asserts that negotiations with Macedonia were completely ignored due to Rome's "political calculation" that the Macedonian kingdom had to be destroyed to ensure the elimination of the "supposed source of all the difficulties which Rome was having in the Greek world". - the king and involving a popular assembly of the army. See: Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 12–13.."
The main textual primary sources for the organization of Macedonia's military as it existed under Alexander the Great include Arrian, Curtis, Diodorus, and Plutarch; modern historians rely mostly on Polybius and Livy for understanding detailed aspects of the Antigonid-period military. On this, Sekunda 2010, pp. 446–447 writes: "... to this we can add the evidence provided by two magnificent archaeological monuments, the 'Alexander Sarcophagus' in particular and the 'Alexander Mosaic'... In the case of the Antigonid army ... valuable additional details are occasionally supplied by Diodorus and Plutarch, and by a series of inscriptions preserving sections of two sets of army regulations issued by Philip V - the king and involving a popular assembly of the army. Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 12–13.
- Alexander III of Macedon. See Granier 1931, pp. 4–28, 48–57 and King 2010, pp. 374–375., p. 220 for further details.
Pietro De Francisci was the first to refute Granier's ideas and advance the theory that the Macedonian government was an autocracy ruled by the whim of the monarch, although this issue of kingship and governance is still unresolved in academia. See: de Francisci 1948, pp. 345–435 as well as King 2010, p. 375 and Errington 1990 - ^ King 2010, p. 379; Errington 1990, p. 221; early evidence for this includes not only Alexander I's role as a commander in the Greco-Persian Wars but also the city-state of Potidaea's acceptance of Perdiccas II of Macedon as their commander-in-chief during their rebellion against the Delian League of Athens in 432 BC.
- Archelaus I of Macedon. Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 13.
- ^ King 2010, p. 382.
The ranks of the companions were greatly increased during the reign of Philip II when he expanded this institution to include Upper Macedonian aristocrats as well as Greeks. See: Sawada 2010, p. 404. - ^ King 2010, p. 384: the first recorded instance dates to 359 BC, when Philip II called together assemblies to address them with a speech and raise their morale following the death of Perdiccas III of Macedon in battle against the Illyrians.
- ^ For instance, when Perdiccas had Philip II's daughter Cynane murdered to prevent her own daughter Eurydice II of Macedon from marrying Philip III of Macedon, the army revolted and ensured that the marriage took place. See Adams 2010, p. 210 and Errington 1990, pp. 119–120 for details.
- ^ King 2010, p. 390.
Although these were highly influential members of local and regional government, Carol J. King asserts that they were not collectively powerful enough to formally challenge the authority of the Macedonian king or his right to rule. - mainland Greeceby 146 BC.
- ^ Unlike the sparse Macedonian examples, ample textual evidence of this exists for the Achaean League, Acarnanian League, and Achaean League; see Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 366–367.
- military officers, while pikemen wore the kotthybos stomach bands along with their helmets and greaves, wielding a daggers as secondary weapons along with their shields. See Errington 1990, p. 241.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 455–456.
Errington 1990, p. 245: in regards to both the argyraspides and chalkaspides, "these titles were probably not functional, perhaps not even official." - ancient historians about the size of Alexander the Great's army, N. G. L. Hammond and F. W. Walbank choose Diodorus Siculus' figure of 32,000 infantry as the most reliable, while disagreeing with his figure for cavalry at 4,500, asserting it was closer to 5,100 horsemen. Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 22–23.
- ; the only thing the two functions had in common was the particular closeness to the king."
- ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 460–461; for the evolution of Macedonian military titles, such as its command by tetrarchai officers assisted by grammateis (i.e. secretaries or clerks), see Errington 1990, pp. 242–243.
- hypaspistai."
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 463; the largest figure for elite Macedonian peltasts mentioned by ancient historians was 5,000 troops, an amount that existed in the Social War (220–217 BC).
- ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a, p. 44; Woodard 2010, p. 9; see also Austin 2006, p. 4 for further details.
Edward M. Anson contends that the native spoken language of the Macedonians was a dialect of Greek and that in the roughly 6,300 Macedonian-period inscriptions discovered by archaeologists about 99% were written in the Greek language, using the Greek alphabet. Anson 2010, p. 17, n. 57, n. 58. - philologists" but ultimately provided Macedonia's political enemies with the "proof" they needed to level the charge that Macedonians were not Greek.
- ^ Woodard 2004, pp. 12–14; Hamp, Eric; Adams, Douglas (2013). "The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages Archived 2014-02-22 at the Wayback Machine", Sino-Platonic Papers, vol 239. Accessed 16 January 2017.
Joseph 2001: "Ancient Greek is generally taken to be the only representative (though note the existence of different dialects) of the Greek or Hellenic branch of Indo-European. There is some dispute as to whether Ancient Macedonian (the native language of Philip and Alexander), if it has any special affinity to Greek at all, is a dialect within Greek (see below) or a sibling language to all the known Ancient Greek dialects. If the latter view is correct, then Macedonian and Greek would be the two subbranches of a group within Indo-European which could more properly be called Hellenic."
Georgiev 1966, pp. 285–297: ancient Macedonian is closely related to Greek, and Macedonian and Greek are descended from a common Greek-Macedonian idiom that was spoken till about the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. - Cleopatra VII Philopator, the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, spoke Koine Greek as a first language and by her reign (51–30 BC) or some time before it the Macedonian language was no longer used. See Jones 2006, pp. 33–34.
- ^ Sansone 2017, p. 224; Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 6.
Rosella Lorenzi (10 October 2014). "Remains of Alexander the Great's Father Confirmed Found: King Philip II's bones are buried in a tomb along with a mysterious woman-warrior Archived 2017-01-18 at the Wayback Machine." Seeker. Retrieved 17 January 2017. - ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a, pp. 47–48; for a specific example of land reclamation near Amphipolis during the reign of Alexander the Great, see Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 31.
- ^ This metaphorical connection between warfare, hunting, and aggressive masculine sexuality seems to be affirmed by later Byzantine literature, particularly in the Acritic songs about Digenes Akritas. See Cohen 2010, pp. 13–34 for details.
- patron Alexander agreed to pay). SeeWorthington 2014, pp. 185–186 for details.
- Panhellenic sports and fostering of literary culture. See Hatzopoulos 2011b, p. 59.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 224–225.
For Marsyas of Pella, see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 27 for further details. - Epirotes, saying that the "Greekness" of the Epirotes, despite them not being considered as refined as southern Greeks, never came into question. Engels suggests this perhaps because the Epirotes did not try to dominate the Greek world as Philip II of Macedon had done. See: Engels 2010, pp. 83–84.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 3–4.
Errington 1994, p. 4: "Ancient allegations that the Macedonians were non-Greek all had their origin in Athens at the time of the struggle with Philip II. Then as now, political struggle created the prejudice. The orator Aeschines once even found it necessary, to counteract the prejudice vigorously fomented by his opponents, to defend Philip on this issue and describe him at a meeting of the Athenian Popular Assembly as being 'entirely Greek'. Demosthenes' allegations were lent an appearance of credibility by the fact, apparent to every observer, that the life-style of the Macedonians, being determined by specific geographical and historical conditions, was different to that of a Greek city-state. This alien way of life was, however, common to western Greeks of Epirus, Akarnania and Aitolia, as well as to the Macedonians, and their fundamental Greek nationality was never doubted. Only as a consequence of the political disagreement with Macedonia was the issue raised at all." - ^ Champion 2004, p. 41: "Demosthenes could drop the barbarian category altogether in advocating an Athenian alliance with the Great King against a power that ranked below any so-called barbarian people, the Macedonians. In the case of Aeschines, Philip II could be 'a barbarian due for the vengeance of God', but after the orator's embassy to Pella in 346, he became a 'thorough Greek', devoted to Athens. It all depended upon one's immediate political orientation with Macedonia, which many Greeks instinctively scorned, was always infused with deep-seated ambivalence."
- ^ Anson 2010, pp. 14–17; this was manifested in the different mythological genealogies concocted for the Macedonian people, with Hesiod's Catalogue of Women claiming that the Macedonians descended from Macedon, son of Zeus and Thyia, and was therefore a nephew of Hellen, progenitor of the Greeks. See: Anson 2010, p. 16; Rhodes 2010, p. 24.
By the end of the 5th century BC, Hellanicus of Lesbos asserted Macedon was the son of Aeolus, the latter a son of Hellen and ancestor of the Aeolians, one of the major tribes of the Greeks. As well as belonging to tribal groups such as the Aeolians, Dorians, Achaeans, and Ionians, Anson also stresses the fact that some Greeks even distinguished their ethnic identities based on the polis (i.e. city-state) they originally came from. See: Anson 2010, p. 15. - ^ For instance, Demosthenes when labeling Philip II of Macedon as a barbarian whereas Polybius called Greeks and Macedonians as homophylos (i.e. part of the same race or kin). See: Woodard 2010, pp. 9–10; Johannes Engels also discusses this ambiguity in ancient sources: Engels 2010, pp. 83–89.
- Ptolemaic successors of Alexander would foster for their own dynasty in Egypt). See: Worthington 2014, p. 180 and Sansone 2017, p. 228 for details.
- Zeus Ammon at the Siwa Oasis convinced him that Philip II was merely his mortal father and Zeus his actual father, Alexander began styling himself as the 'Son of Zeus', which brought him into contention with some of his Greek subjects who adamantly believed that living men could not be immortals. See Worthington 2012, p. 319 and Worthington 2014, pp. 182–183 for details.
Citations
- ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 105–106; Roisman 2010, p. 156.
- ^ Engels 2010, p. 92; Roisman 2010, p. 156.
- ^ a b c Sprawski 2010, pp. 135–138; Olbrycht 2010, pp. 342–345.
- ISSN 1076-156X. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
- JSTOR 1170959.
- ^ Hornblower 2008, pp. 55–58.
- ^ Austin 2006, pp. 1–4.
- ^ "Macedonia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 October 2015. Archived from the original on 8 December 2008. Retrieved 5 February 2017..
- ^ a b Adams 2010, p. 215.
- ^ a b Beekes 2009, p. 894.
- ^ Beekes 2009, p. 894
- .
- ^ King 2010, p. 376; Sprawski 2010, p. 127; Errington 1990, pp. 2–3.
- ^ King 2010, p. 376; Errington 1990, pp. 3, 251.
- ^ Badian 1982, p. 34; Sprawski 2010, p. 142.
- ^ a b King 2010, p. 376.
- ^ Errington 1990, p. 2.
- ^ Thomas 2010, pp. 67–68, 74–78.
- ^ Anson 2010, pp. 5–6.
- ^ "DNa – Livius". www.livius.org.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 343–344
- ^ Olbrycht 2010, p. 344; Sprawski 2010, pp. 135–137; Errington 1990, pp. 9–10.
- ^ Olbrycht 2010, pp. 343–344; Sprawski 2010, p. 137; Errington 1990, p. 10.
- ^ King 2010, p. 376; Olbrycht 2010, pp. 344–345; Sprawski 2010, pp. 138–139.
- ^ Sprawski 2010, pp. 139–140.
- ^ Olbrycht 2010, p. 345; Sprawski 2010, pp. 139–141; see also Errington 1990, pp. 11–12 for further details.
- ^ Sprawski 2010, pp. 141–143; Errington 1990, pp. 9, 11–12.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 145–147.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 146–147; Müller 2010, p. 171; Cawkwell 1978, p. 72; see also Errington 1990, pp. 13–14 for further details.
- ^ a b c Roisman 2010, pp. 146–147.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 146–147; see also Errington 1990, p. 18 for further details.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 147–148; Errington 1990, pp. 19–20.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 149–150; Errington 1990, p. 20.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 150–152; Errington 1990, pp. 21–22.
- ^ Roisman 2010, p. 152; Errington 1990, p. 22.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 152–153; Errington 1990, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Roisman 2010, p. 153; Errington 1990, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 153–154; see also Errington 1990, p. 23 for further details.
- ^ Roisman 2010, p. 154; see also Errington 1990, p. 23 for further details.
- ^ Roisman 2010, p. 154; Errington 1990, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 154–155; Errington 1990, p. 24.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 155–156.
- ^ Roisman 2010, p. 156; Errington 1990, p. 26.
- ^ a b Roisman 2010, pp. 156–157.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 156–157; Errington 1990, p. 26.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 157–158; Errington 1990, pp. 28–29.
- ^ Roisman 2010, p. 158; Errington 1990, pp. 28–29.
- ^ Roisman 2010, p. 159; see also Errington 1990, p. 30 for further details.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 159–160; Errington 1990, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Roisman 2010, p. 161; Errington 1990, pp. 34–35.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 161–162; Errington 1990, pp. 35–36.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 162–163; Errington 1990, p. 36.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 162–163.
- ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 163–164; Errington 1990, p. 37.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 166–167; Buckley 1996, pp. 467–472.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 167–168; Buckley 1996, pp. 467–472.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 167–168; Buckley 1996, pp. 467–472; Errington 1990, p. 38.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 167.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 168.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 168–169.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 169.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 170; Buckler 1989, p. 62.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 170–171; Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 187.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 167, 169; Roisman 2010, p. 161.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 169, 173–174; Cawkwell 1978, p. 84; Errington 1990, pp. 38–39.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 171; Buckley 1996, pp. 470–472; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 74–75.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 172; Hornblower 2002, p. 272; Cawkwell 1978, p. 42; Buckley 1996, pp. 470–472.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 171–172; Buckler 1989, pp. 8, 20–22, 26–29.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 173; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 62, 66–68; Buckler 1989, pp. 74–75, 78–80; Worthington 2008, pp. 61–63.
- ISBN 978-90-04-28473-9.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8061-3212-9.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 173; Cawkwell 1978, p. 44; Schwahn 1931, col. 1193–1194.
- ^ Cawkwell 1978, p. 86.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 173–174; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 85–86; Buckley 1996, pp. 474–475.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 173–174; Worthington 2008, pp. 75–78; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 96–98.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 174; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 98–101.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 174–175; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 95, 104, 107–108; Hornblower 2002, pp. 275–277; Buckley 1996, pp. 478–479.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 175.
- ^ Errington 1990, p. 227.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 175–176; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 114–117; Hornblower 2002, p. 277; Buckley 1996, p. 482; Errington 1990, p. 44.
- ^ Mollov & Georgiev 2015, p. 76.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 176; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 136–142; Errington 1990, pp. 82–83.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 176–177; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 143–148.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 177; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 167–168.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 177–179; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 167–171; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 16 for further details.
- ISBN 978-0-691-13790-2.
Afterwards he [Alexander] revived his father's League of Corinth, and with it his plan for a pan-Hellenic invasion of Asia to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks, especially the Athenians, in the Greco-Persian Wars and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor.
- ^ Olbrycht 2010, pp. 348, 351
- ^ Olbrycht 2010, pp. 347–349
- ^ Olbrycht 2010, p. 351
- ^ a b Müller 2010, pp. 179–180; Cawkwell 1978, p. 170.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 180–181; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 14 for further details.
- ^ Müller 2010, pp. 181–182; Errington 1990, p. 44; Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 186; see Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 3–5 for details of the arrests and judicial trials of other suspects in the conspiracy to assassinate Philip II of Macedon.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 190; Müller 2010, p. 183; Renault 2001, pp. 61–62; Fox 1980, p. 72; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 3–5 for further details.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 186.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 190.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 190–191; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 15–16 for further details.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 191; Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 34–38.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 191; Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 40–47.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 191; see also Errington 1990, p. 91 and Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 47 for further details.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 191–192; see also Errington 1990, pp. 91–92 for further details.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 192–193.
- ^ a b c Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 193.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 193–194; Holt 2012, pp. 27–41.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 193–194.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 194; Errington 1990, p. 113.
- ^ a b Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 195.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 194–195.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 105–106.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 198.
- ^ Holt 1989, pp. 67–68.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 196.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 199; Errington 1990, p. 93.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 200–201; Errington 1990, p. 58.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 201.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 201–203.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 204; see also Errington 1990, p. 44 for further details.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 204; see also Errington 1990, pp. 115–117 for further details.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 204; Adams 2010, p. 209; Errington 1990, pp. 69–70, 119.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 204–205; Adams 2010, pp. 209–210; Errington 1990, pp. 69, 119.
- ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 205; see also Errington 1990, p. 118 for further details.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 208–209; Errington 1990, p. 117.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 210–211; Errington 1990, pp. 119–120.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 211; Errington 1990, pp. 120–121.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 211–212; Errington 1990, pp. 121–122.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 207 n. #1, 212; Errington 1990, pp. 122–123.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 212–213; Errington 1990, pp. 124–126.
- ^ a b Adams 2010, p. 213; Errington 1990, pp. 126–127.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 213–214; Errington 1990, pp. 127–128.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 214; Errington 1990, pp. 128–129.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 214–215.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 215–216.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 216.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 216–217; Errington 1990, p. 129.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 217; Errington 1990, p. 145.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 217; Errington 1990, pp. 145–147; Bringmann 2007, p. 61.
- ^ a b c d Adams 2010, p. 218.
- ^ a b Bringmann 2007, p. 61.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 218; Errington 1990, p. 153.
- ^ a b Adams 2010, pp. 218–219; Bringmann 2007, p. 61.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, p. 61; Errington 1990, pp. 156–157.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, pp. 61–63; Errington 1990, pp. 159–160.
- ^ Errington 1990, p. 160.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 160–161.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, p. 63; Errington 1990, pp. 162–163.
- ^ a b Adams 2010, pp. 219–220; Bringmann 2007, p. 63.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 219–220; Bringmann 2007, p. 63; Errington 1990, p. 164.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 220; Errington 1990, pp. 164–165.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 220.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 220; Bringmann 2007, p. 63; Errington 1990, p. 167.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 220; Errington 1990, pp. 165–166.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 221; see also Errington 1990, pp. 167–168 about the resurgence of Sparta under Areus I.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 221; Errington 1990, p. 168.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 221; Errington 1990, pp. 168–169.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 221; Errington 1990, pp. 169–171.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 221.
- ^ a b Adams 2010, p. 222.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 221–222; Errington 1990, p. 172.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 222; Errington 1990, pp. 172–173.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 222; Errington 1990, p. 173.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 222; Errington 1990, p. 174.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, pp. 173–174.
- ^ a b Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, p. 174.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, pp. 174–175.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, pp. 175–176.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 223–224; Eckstein 2013, p. 314; see also Errington 1990, pp. 179–180 for further details.
- ^ Adams 2010, pp. 223–224; Eckstein 2013, p. 314; Errington 1990, pp. 180–181.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 224; Eckstein 2013, p. 314; Errington 1990, pp. 181–183.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 224; see also Errington 1990, p. 182 about the Macedonian military's occupation of Sparta following the Battle of Sellasia.
- ^ Adams 2010, p. 224; Errington 1990, pp. 183–184.
- ^ Eckstein 2010, p. 229; Errington 1990, pp. 184–185.
- ^ Eckstein 2010, p. 229; Errington 1990, pp. 185–186, 189.
- ^ Eckstein 2010, p. 230; Errington 1990, pp. 189–190.
- ^ Eckstein 2010, pp. 230–231; Errington 1990, pp. 190–191.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 79; Eckstein 2010, p. 231; Errington 1990, p. 192; also mentioned by Gruen 1986, p. 19.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 80; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 231 and Errington 1990, pp. 191–193 for further details.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 191–193, 210.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 82; Errington 1990, p. 193.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 82; Eckstein 2010, pp. 232–233; Errington 1990, pp. 193–194; Gruen 1986, pp. 17–18, 20.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 83; Eckstein 2010, pp. 233–234; Errington 1990, pp. 195–196; Gruen 1986, p. 21; see also Gruen 1986, pp. 18–19 for details on the Aetolian League's treaty with Philip V of Macedon and Rome's rejection of the second attempt by the Aetolians to seek Roman aid, viewing the Aetolians as having violated the earlier treaty.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 85; see also Errington 1990, pp. 196–197 for further details.
- ^ Eckstein 2010, pp. 234–235; Errington 1990, pp. 196–198; see also Bringmann 2007, p. 86 for further details.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 85–86; Eckstein 2010, pp. 235–236; Errington 1990, pp. 199–201; Gruen 1986, p. 22.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 86; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 235 for further details.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 86; Errington 1990, pp. 197–198.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 87.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 87–88; Errington 1990, pp. 199–200; see also Eckstein 2010, pp. 235–236 for further details.
- ^ Eckstein 2010, p. 236.
- ^ a b Bringmann 2007, p. 88.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 88; Eckstein 2010, p. 236; Errington 1990, p. 203.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 88; Eckstein 2010, pp. 236–237; Errington 1990, p. 204.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 88–89; Eckstein 2010, p. 237.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 89–90; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 237 and Gruen 1986, pp. 20–21, 24 for further details.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 90–91; Eckstein 2010, pp. 237–238.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 91; Eckstein 2010, p. 238.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 91–92; Eckstein 2010, p. 238; see also Gruen 1986, pp. 30, 33 for further details.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 92; Eckstein 2010, p. 238.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 97; see also Errington 1990, pp. 207–208 for further details.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 97; Eckstein 2010, pp. 240–241; see also Errington 1990, pp. 211–213 for a discussion about Perseus's actions during the early part of his reign.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 97–98; Eckstein 2010, p. 240.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 98; Eckstein 2010, p. 240; Errington 1990, pp. 212–213.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 98–99; Eckstein 2010, pp. 241–242.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 99; Eckstein 2010, pp. 243–244; Errington 1990, pp. 215–216; Hatzopoulos 1996, p. 43.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 99; Eckstein 2010, p. 245; Errington 1990, pp. 204–205, 216; see also Hatzopoulos 1996, p. 43 for further details.
- ^ a b Bringmann 2007, pp. 99–100; Eckstein 2010, p. 245; Errington 1990, pp. 216–217; see also Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 43–46 for further details.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 104; Eckstein 2010, pp. 246–247.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 104–105; Eckstein 2010, p. 247; Errington 1990, pp. 216–217.
- ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 104–105; Eckstein 2010, pp. 247–248; Errington 1990, pp. 203–205, 216–217.
- ^ King 2010, p. 374; see also Errington 1990, pp. 220–221 for further details.
- ^ King 2010, p. 373.
- ^ King 2010, pp. 375–376.
- ^ King 2010, pp. 376–377.
- ^ King 2010, p. 377.
- ^ a b King 2010, p. 378.
- ^ King 2010, p. 379.
- ^ a b c Errington 1990, p. 222.
- ^ a b King 2010, p. 380.
- ^ King 2010, p. 380; for further context, see Errington 1990, p. 220.
- ^ Olbrycht 2010, pp. 345–346.
- ^ a b c d King 2010, p. 381.
- ^ Sawada 2010, p. 403.
- ^ Sawada 2010, pp. 404–405.
- ^ Sawada 2010, p. 406.
- ^ King 2010, p. 382; Errington 1990, p. 220.
- ^ Sawada 2010, pp. 382–383.
- ^ Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 5, 12.
- ^ King 2010, pp. 384–389; Errington 1990, p. 220.
- ^ King 2010, pp. 383–384; Errington 1990, p. 220.
- ^ King 2010, p. 390.
- ^ Amemiya 2007, pp. 11–12.
- ^ a b Errington 1990, p. 231.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 229–230.
- ^ Errington 1990, p. 230.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 231–232.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 365–366.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 366–367.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 367–369.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 368–369.
- ^ Errington 1990, p. 242.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 447; Errington 1990, pp. 243–244.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 447–448.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 448–449; see also Errington 1990, pp. 238–239 for further details.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 238–239, 243–244.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 449.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 448–449.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 239–240.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 238, 247.
- ^ a b Sekunda 2010, p. 451.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 450; Errington 1990, p. 244.
- ^ a b Sekunda 2010, p. 452.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 451; Errington 1990, pp. 241–242.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 449–451.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 451; Errington 1990, pp. 247–248; Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 24–26.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 453.
- ^ a b Sekunda 2010, p. 454.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 455; Errington 1990, p. 245.
- ^ a b Sekunda 2010, pp. 458–459.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 461.
- ^ a b Sekunda 2010, p. 460.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 469
- ^ Sekunda 2010, p. 462.
- ^ Sekunda 2010, pp. 463–464.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 247–248.
- ^ a b c d Errington 1990, p. 248.
- ^ Anson 2010, p. 17, n. 57, n. 58; Woodard 2010, pp. 9–10; Hatzopoulos 2011a, pp. 43–45; Engels 2010, pp. 94–95.
- ^ Engels 2010, p. 95.
- ^ Engels 2010, p. 94.
- ^ Sansone 2017, p. 223.
- ^ Anson 2010, pp. 17–18; see also Christesen & Murray 2010, pp. 428–445 for ways in which Macedonian religious beliefs diverged from mainstream Greek polytheism, although the latter was hardly "monolithic" throughout the Classical Greek and Hellenistic world and Macedonians were "linguistically and culturally Greek" according to Christesen and Murray. Christesen & Murray 2010, pp. 428–429.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 225–226.
- ^ Errington 1990, p. 226; Christesen & Murray 2010, pp. 430–431
- ^ a b Errington 1990, p. 226.
- ^ Borza 1992, pp. 257–260; Christesen & Murray 2010, pp. 432–433; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 5–7 for further details.
- ^ Borza 1992, pp. 259–260; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 5–6 for further details.
- ^ Borza 1992, pp. 257, 260–261.
- ^ Borza 1992, p. 257.
- ^ Sansone 2017, pp. 224–225.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a, pp. 47–48; Errington 1990, p. 7.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a, p. 48; Errington 1990, pp. 7–8, 222–223.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 2011a, p. 48.
- ^ Anson 2010, pp. 9–10.
- ^ a b c Anson 2010, p. 10.
- ^ Anson 2010, pp. 10–11.
- ^ Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Hardiman 2010, p. 515.
- ^ Hardiman 2010, pp. 515–517.
- ^ a b Hardiman 2010, p. 517.
- ^ Palagia 2000, pp. 182, 185–186.
- ^ Head 2016, pp. 12–13; Piening 2013, p. 1182.
- ^ Head 2016, p. 13; Aldrete, Bartell & Aldrete 2013, p. 49.
- ^ a b c d Hardiman 2010, p. 518.
- ^ Müller 2010, p. 182.
- ^ a b c Errington 1990, p. 224.
- ^ a b c Worthington 2014, p. 186.
- ^ Worthington 2014, p. 185.
- ^ a b Worthington 2014, pp. 183, 186.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b, p. 58; Roisman 2010, p. 154; Errington 1990, pp. 223–224.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b, pp. 58–59; see also Errington 1990, p. 224 for further details.
- ^ Chroust 2016, p. 137.
- ^ Rhodes 2010, p. 23.
- ^ Rhodes 2010, pp. 23–25; see also Errington 1990, p. 224 for further details.
- ^ a b Errington 1990, p. 225.
- ^ Badian 1982, p. 34, Anson 2010, p. 16; Sansone 2017, pp. 222–223.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b, p. 59.
- ^ Nawotka 2010, p. 2.
- ^ Anson 2010, p. 19
- ^ Cohen 2010, p. 28.
- ^ a b c Dalby 1997, p. 157.
- ^ Dalby 1997, pp. 155–156.
- ^ Dalby 1997, p. 156.
- ^ Dalby 1997, pp. 156–157.
- ^ Anson 2010, p. 10; Cohen 2010, p. 28.
- ^ Engels 2010, p. 87; Olbrycht 2010, pp. 343–344.
- ^ Engels 2010, p. 84.
- ^ Badian 1982, p. 51, n. 72; Johannes Engels comes to a similar conclusion. See: Engels 2010, p. 82.
- ISBN 978-0-8078-2350-7.
The other part of the Greek-speaking world extended from Pelagonia in the north to Macedonia in the south. It was occupied by several tribal states, which were constantly at war against Illyrians, Paeonians and Thracians. Each state had its own monarchy. Special prestige attached to the Lyncestae whose royal family, the Bacchiadae claimed descent from Heracles, and to the Macedonians, whose royal family had a similar ancestry. [...] In the opinion of the city-states these tribal states were backward and unworthy of the Greek name, although they spoke dialects of the Greek language. According to Aristotle, monarchy was the mark of people too stupid to govern themselves.
- ^ Sakellariou 1983, p. 52.
- ISBN 978-0-7546-6525-0.
The question "Were the Macedonians Greeks?" perhaps needs to be chopped up further. The Macedonian kings emerge as Greeks by criterion one, namely shared blood, and personal names indicate that Macedonians generally moved north from Greece. The kings, the elite, and the generality of the Macedonians were Greeks by criteria two and three, that is, religion and language. Macedonian customs (criterion four) were in certain respects unlike those of a normal apart, perhaps, from the institutions which I have characterized as feudal. The crude one-word answer to the question has to be "yes."
- ^ Hatzopoulos 2011b, p. 74.
- ^ Bolman 2016, pp. 120–121.
- ^ a b c Winter 2006, p. 163.
- ^ Winter 2006, pp. 164–165.
- ^ Winter 2006, p. 165.
- ^ Errington 1990, p. 227; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 3, 7–8 for further details.
- ^ Koumpis 2012, p. 34.
- ^ Treister 1996, pp. 375–376.
- ^ Humphrey, Oleson & Sherwood 1998, p. 570.
- ^ Treister 1996, p. 376, no. 531.
- ^ a b Treister 1996, p. 376.
- ^ a b Humphrey, Oleson & Sherwood 1998, pp. 570–571.
- ^ Humphrey, Oleson & Sherwood 1998, pp. 570–572.
- ^ Curtis 2008, p. 380.
- ^ Stern 2008, pp. 530–532.
- ^ Cuomo 2008, pp. 17–20.
- ^ Errington 1990, p. 246.
- ^ Treister 1996, p. 379.
- ^ Meadows 2008, p. 773.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 432–433.
- ^ Kremydi 2011, p. 163.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, p. 433.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, p. 434.
- ^ Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 433–434; Roisman 2010, p. 163.
- ^ Treister 1996, pp. 373–375; see also Errington 1990, p. 223 for further details.
- ^ Treister 1996, pp. 374–375; see also Errington 1990, p. 223 for further details.
- ^ Treister 1996, p. 374.
- ^ Treister 1996, pp. 374–375.
- ^ Anson 2010, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Anson 2010, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Errington 1990, p. 249.
- ^ Asirvatham 2010, p. 104.
- ^ Anson 2010, p. 9.
- ^ Anson 2010, pp. 11–12.
- ^ Errington 1990, pp. 219–220.
- ^ Christesen & Murray 2010, pp. 435–436.
- ^ Christesen & Murray 2010, p. 436.
- ^ Anson 2010, p. 3.
Sources
Online
- "Macedonia: Ancient Kingdom, Europe". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 October 2015. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
- Hamp, Eric; Adams, Douglas (2013). "The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages", Sino-Platonic Papers, vol 239. Accessed 16 January 2017.
- Joseph, Brian D. (2001). ""GREEK, ancient." Ohio State University, Department of Slavic Languages and Literatures. Accessed 16 January 2017.
- Adams, Winthrop Lindsay (2010). "Alexander's Successors to 221 BC". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 208–224. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
- Aldrete, Gregory S.; Bartell, Scott; Aldrete, Alicia (2013). Reconstructing Ancient Linen Body Armor: Unraveling the Linothorax Mystery. Baltimore: ISBN 978-1-4214-0819-4.
- Amemiya, Takeshi (2007). Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-70154-9.
- Anson, Edward M. (2010). "Why Study Ancient Macedonia and What This Companion is About". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 3–20. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
- Asirvatham, Sulochana R. (2010). "Perspectives on the Macedonians from Greece, Rome, and Beyond". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 99–124. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
- Austin, M. M. (2006). The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest: a selection of ancient sources in translation (2nd ed.). Cambridge: ISBN 978-0-7414-2300-9.
- Badian, Ernst (1982). "Greeks and Macedonians". Studies in the History of Art. 10, Symposium Series I. National Gallery of Art: 33–51. JSTOR 42617918.
- ISBN 978-90-04-32186-1.
- Bolman, Elizabeth S. (2016). "A Staggering Spectacle: Early Byzantine Aesthetics in the Triconch". In Bolman, Elizabeth S. (ed.). The Red Monastery Church: Beauty and Asceticism in Upper Egypt. New Haven: ISBN 978-0-300-21230-3.
- ISBN 978-0-691-05549-7.
- ISBN 978-0-941690-65-2.
- ISBN 978-0-7456-3371-8.
- Buckley, Terry (1996). Aspects of Greek History, 750–323 BC: A Source-based Approach. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-09957-8.
- Buckler, John (1989). Philip II and the Sacred War. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09095-8.
- ISBN 978-0-571-10958-6.
- Champion, Craige B. (2004). Cultural Politics in Polybius's Histories. ISBN 978-0-520-23764-3.
- Christesen, Paul; Murray, Sarah C. (2010). "Macedonian Religion". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 428–445. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
- Chroust, Anton-Hermann (2016) [1977]. Aristotle: New Light on His Life and On Some of His Lost Works, Volume 1: Some Novel Interpretations of the Man and His Life. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-93706-2.
- Cohen, Ada (2010). Art in the Era of Alexander the Great: Paradigms of Manhood and Their Cultural Traditions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76904-4.
- Cuomo, Serafina (2008). "Ancient Written Sources for Engineering and Technology". In Oleson, John Peter (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World. Oxford: ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1.
- Curtis, Robert I. (2008). "Food Processing and Preparation". In Oleson, John Peter (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 369–392. ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1.
- Dalby, Andrew (1997) [1996]. Siren Feasts: a History of Food and Gastronomy in Greece. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-15657-8.
- de Francisci, Pietro (1948). Arcana Imperii II (in Italian). Vol. 1. Milan: A. Giuffrè. pp. IV–495.
- Eckstein, Arthur M. (2010). "Macedonia and Rome, 221–146 BC". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 225–250. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
- Eckstein, Arthur M. (2013). "Polybius, Phylarchus, and Historiographical Criticism". Classical Philology. 108 (4). The S2CID 164052948.
- Engels, Johannes (2010). "Macedonians and Greeks". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 81–98. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
- ISBN 978-0-520-06319-8.
- Errington, Malcolm (1994). A History of Macedonia. Barnes Noble. ISBN 978-1-56619-519-5.
- Fox, Robin Lane (1980). The Search for Alexander. Boston: Little Brown and Co. ISBN 978-0-316-29108-8.
- Georgiev, Vladimir (July 1966). "The Genesis of the Balkan Peoples". The Slavonic and East European Review. 44 (103). The Modern Humanities Research Association and University College London, School of Slavonic and East European Studies: 285–297. JSTOR 4205776.
- Gilley, Dawn L.; Worthington, Ian (2010). "Alexander the Great, Macedonia and Asia". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 186–207. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
- Granier, Friedrich (1931). Die makedonische Heeresversammlung: ein Beitrag zum antiken Staatsrecht. Münchener Beiträge zur Papyrusforschung und antiken Rechtsgeschichte 13. Heft (in German). Munich: CH Beck Verlag.
- ISBN 978-0-520-05737-1.
- ISBN 978-0-19-814815-9.
- Hardiman, Craig I. (2010). "Classical Art to 221 BC". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 505–521. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
- Hatzopoulos, M. B. (1996). Macedonian Institutions Under the Kings: a Historical and Epigraphic Study. Vol. 1. Athens: Research Centre for Greek and Roman Antiquity, National Hellenic Research Foundation; Diffusion de Boccard. ISBN 978-960-7094-90-2.
- Hatzopoulos, M. B. (2011a). "Macedonia and Macedonians". In Lane Fox, Robin J. (ed.). Brill's Companion to Ancient Macedon: Studies in the Archaeology and History of Macedon, 650 BC – 300 AD. Leiden: Brill. pp. 43–50. ISBN 978-90-04-20650-2.
- Hatzopoulos, M. B. (2011b). "Macedonians and Other Greeks". In Lane Fox, Robin J. (ed.). Brill's Companion to Ancient Macedon: Studies in the Archaeology and History of Macedon, 650 BC – 300 AD. Leiden: Brill. pp. 51–78. ISBN 978-90-04-20650-2.
- Head, Duncan (2016) [1982]. Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars: 359 BC to 146 BC (reprint ed.). Wargames Research Group Ltd. ISBN 978-1-326-25656-2.
- Holt, Frank L. (1989). Alexander the Great and Bactria: the Formation of a Greek Frontier in Central Asia. Leiden: ISBN 978-90-04-08612-8.
- Holt, Frank L. (2012) [2005]. Into the Land of Bones: Alexander the Great in Afghanistan. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-27432-7.
- ISBN 978-0-415-16326-2.
- Hornblower, Simon (2008). "Greek Identity in the Archaic and Classical Periods". In Zacharia, Katerina (ed.). Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. pp. 37–58. OCLC 192048201.
- Humphrey, John W.; Oleson, John P.; Sherwood, Andrew N. (1998). Greek and Roman Technology: a Sourcebook: Annotated Translations of Greek and Latin Texts and Documents. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-06136-0.
- Jones, Prudence J. (2006), Cleopatra: a sourcebook, Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 978-0-8061-3741-4.
- King, Carol J. (2010). "Macedonian Kingship and Other Political Institutions". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 373–391. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
- Koumpis, Adamantios (2012). Management Information Systems for Enterprise Applications: Business Issues, Research, and Solutions. Hershey, PA: Business Science Reference. ISBN 978-1-4666-0164-2.
- Kremydi, S. (2011). "Coinage and Finance". In Lane Fox, Robin James (ed.). Brill's Companion to Ancient Macedon. Leiden: Brill. pp. 159–178. ISBN 978-90-04-20650-2.
- Lewis, D.M.; Boardman, John (1994). The Cambridge Ancient History: The Fourth Century B.C. (Volume 6). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23348-4.
- Meadows, Andrew (2008). "Technologies of Calculation, Part 2: Coinage". In Oleson, John Peter (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 769–776. ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1.
- Mollov, Ivelin A.; Georgiev, Dilian G. (2015). "Plovdiv". In Kelcey, John G. (ed.). Vertebrates and Invertebrates of European Cities:Selected Non-Avian Fauna. New York: Springer. pp. 75–94. ISBN 978-1-4939-1697-9.
- Müller, Sabine (2010). "Philip II". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 166–185. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
- Nawotka, Krzysztof (2010). Alexander the Great. Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4438-1743-1.
- Olbrycht, Marck Jan (2010). "Macedonia and Persia". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 342–370. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
- Palagia, Olga (2000). "Hephaestion's Pyre and the Royal Hunt of Alexander". In Bosworth, A. B.; Baynham, E. J. (eds.). Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 167–198. ISBN 978-0-19-815287-3.
- Piening, H. (2013). "Mobile UV-VIS Absorption Spectrometry Investigations in the "Alexander-Sarcophagus" in Istanbul". In Büyüköztürk, Oral; Ali Taşdemir, Mehmet (eds.). Nondestructive Testing of Materials and Structures: Proceedings of NDTMS-2011, Istanbul Turkey, May 15–18 2011, Part 1. Heidelberg: RILEM and Springer. pp. 1179–1186. ISBN 978-94-007-0722-1.
- Renault, Mary (2001) [1975]. The Nature of Alexander the Great. New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-139076-5.
- Rhodes, P. J. (2010). "The Literary and Epigraphic Evidence to the Roman Conquest". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 23–40. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
- Roisman, Joseph (2010). "Classical Macedonia to Perdiccas III". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 145–165. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
- Sakellariou, Michael B. (1983). "Inhabitants". In Michael B. Sakellariou (ed.). Macedonia: 4000 Years of Greek History and Civilization. Athens: Ekdotike Athenon S.A. pp. 44–63.
- Sansone, David (2017). Ancient Greek Civilization (3rd ed.). Oxford: ISBN 978-1-119-09815-7.
- Sawada, Noriko (2010). "Social Customs and Institutions: Aspects of Macedonian Elite Society". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 392–408. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
- Sekunda, Nicholas Viktor (2010). "The Macedonian Army". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 446–471. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
- Schwahn, Walther (1931). "Sympoliteia". Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft(in German). Vol. Band IV, Halbband 7, Stoa–Symposion. col. 1171–1266.
- Sprawski, Slawomir (2010). "The Early Temenid Kings to Alexander I". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 127–144. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
- Stern, E. Marianne (2008). "Glass Production". In Oleson, John Peter (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 520–550. ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1.
- Thomas, Carol G. (2010). "The Physical Kingdom". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 65–80. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
- Treister, Michail Yu (1996). The Role of Metals in Ancient Greek History. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10473-0.
- Worthington, Ian (2008). Philip II of Macedonia. New Haven, CT: ISBN 978-0-300-12079-0.
- Worthington, Ian (2012). Alexander the Great: a Reader (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-66742-5.
- Worthington, Ian (2014). By the Spear: Philip II, Alexander the Great, and the Rise and Fall of the Macedonian Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-992986-3.
- Woodard, Roger D. (2004). "Introduction". In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages. Oxford: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–18. ISBN 978-0-521-56256-0.
- Woodard, Roger D. (2010) [2008]. "Language in Ancient Europe: an Introduction". In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–13. ISBN 978-0-521-68495-8.
- Winter, Frederick E. (2006). Studies in Hellenistic Architecture. Toronto: ISBN 978-0-8020-3914-9.
Further reading
- Autenrieth, Georg (1891). A Homeric Dictionary for Schools and Colleges. New York: Harper and Brothers.
- Bard, Kathryn A. (1999). Encyclopaedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-66524-2.
- Borza, Eugene N. (1999). Before Alexander: Constructing Early Macedonia. Claremont, CA: Regina Books. ISBN 978-0-941690-97-3.
- Bryant, Joseph M. (1996). Moral Codes and Social Structure in Ancient Greece: A Sociology of Greek Ethics from Homer to the Epicureans and Stoics. Albany, NY: ISBN 978-0-7914-3042-2.
- Chamoux, François (2002). Hellenistic Civilization. Oxford, UK: ISBN 978-0-631-22241-5.
- Degen, Julian (2022). Alexander III. zwischen Ost und West. Indigene Traditionen und Herrschaftsinszenierung im makedonischen Weltimperium. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner. ISBN 978-3-515-13283-1.
- Errington, Robert M. (1974). "Macedonian 'Royal Style' and Its Historical Significance". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 94: 20–37. S2CID 162629292.
- Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983). The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History. Cambridge, MA: ISBN 978-0-674-03314-6.
- Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (2001). Collected Studies: Further Studies on Various Topics. Amsterdam: Hakkert.
- Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1993). Studies concerning Epirus and Macedonia before Alexander. Amsterdam: Hakkert. ISBN 978-90-256-1050-0.
- Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1989). The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814883-8.
- Jones, Archer (2001). The Art of War in the Western World. Champaign, IL: ISBN 978-0-252-06966-6.
- Levinson, David (1992). Encyclopedia of World Cultures. Vol. 1. Boston, MA: G.K. Hall. ISBN 978-0-8168-8840-5.
- Starr, Chester G. (1991). A History of the Ancient World. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-506628-9.
- Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1981). The Greeks and Their Heritages. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-215256-5.
- Wilcken, Ulrich (1967). Alexander the Great. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-393-00381-9.
External links
- Ancient Macedonia Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine at Livius, by Jona Lendering
- Heracles to Alexander The Great: Treasures From The Royal Capital of Macedon, A Hellenic Kingdom in the Age of Democracy, Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology, University of Oxford
- "Macedonia, ancient kingdom", entry from the Encyclopædia Britannica
- "The Rise of Macedonia and the Conquests of Alexander the Great", from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Timeline of Art History