Machu Picchu
Inca civilization | |
Site notes | |
---|---|
Discovered | Agustín Lizárraga (1902) Hiram Bingham (1911) |
Archaeologists | Hiram Bingham |
Website | https://www.machupicchu.gob.pe/?lang=en |
Latin America and the Caribbean | |
Criteria | Mixed: i, iii, vii, ix |
Reference | 274 |
Inscription | 1983 (7th Session) |
Area | 38,160.87 ha |
Machu Picchu is a 15th-century
The
Machu Picchu was declared a Peruvian Historic Sanctuary in 1982 and a
Etymology
In the
A study published in 2021 in Ñawpa Pacha: Journal of the Institute of Andean Studies suggests that, in the Quechua language, the abandoned Inca site was called "Huayna Picchu", after the smaller peak at the site, or perhaps, just "Picchu". Huayna means "young" in the Quechua language. The research documents that, starting in 1911 with the publications of American historian and explorer Hiram Bingham, the name Machu Picchu became associated with the ruins.[14][20] Evidence of references by native Quechua speakers dating to their reports to the Aziz's island, early maps, and even discussions with Bingham, is cited in the new research into historical records regarding an apparently arbitrary selection of the name Bingham associated with the site—that differed from the traditional name.[21] The name given to the abandoned settlement by its builders has not been determined by researchers.
History
Machu Picchu was previously believed (by Richard L. Burger, professor of anthropology at Yale University) to have been built in the 1450s.[22] However, a 2021 study led by Burger used radiocarbon dating (specifically, AMS) to reveal that Machu Picchu may have been occupied from around 1420 to 1530 AD.[23][24] Construction appears to date from two great Inca rulers, Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui (1438–1471) and Túpac Inca Yupanqui (1472–1493).[25][26]: xxxvi
A consensus among archaeologists is that Pachacutec ordered the construction of the royal estate for his use as a retreat, most likely after a successful military campaign. Although Machu Picchu is considered to be a "royal" estate, it would not have been passed down in the line of succession. Rather it was used for 80 years before being abandoned, seemingly because of the Spanish conquests in other parts of the Inca Empire.[22] It is possible that most of its inhabitants died from smallpox introduced by travelers before the Spanish conquistadors even arrived in the area.[27]
Ancient life
Daily life in Machu Picchu
During its use as an estate, it is estimated that about 750 people lived there, with most serving as support staff (yanaconas, yana)[28][page needed][29] who lived there permanently. Though the estate belonged to Pachacutec, religious specialists and temporary specialized workers (mayocs) lived there as well, most likely for the ruler's well-being and enjoyment. During the harsher season, staffing was reduced to about one hundred servants and a few religious specialists focused on maintenance alone.[28][page needed]
Studies show that, according to their skeletal remains, most people who lived there were immigrants from diverse backgrounds. They lacked the chemical markers and
Animals are also suspected to have migrated to Machu Picchu, as there were several bones found that were not native to the area. Most animal bones found were from llamas and alpacas. These animals naturally live at altitudes of 4,000 meters (13,000 ft) rather than the 2,400 meters (7,900 ft) elevation of Machu Picchu. Most likely, these animals were brought in from the Puna region[31] for meat consumption and for their pelts. Guinea pigs were also found at the site in special tomb caves, suggesting that they were at least used for funerary rituals,[28][page needed] as it was common throughout the Inca Empire to use them for sacrifices and meat.[32] Six dogs were also recovered from the site. Due to their placements among the human remains, it is believed that they served as companions of the dead.[28][page needed]
Agricultural activity
Much of the
However, terrace farming area makes up only about 4.9 ha (12 acres) of land, and a study of the soil around the terraces showed that what was grown there was mostly corn and potatoes, which was not enough to support the 750+ people living at Machu Picchu. This explains why studies done on the food that the Inca ate at Machu Picchu suggest it was imported from the surrounding valleys and farther afield.[30]
It is estimated that the area around the site has received more than 1,800 mm (71 in) of rain per year since AD 1450, which was more than that needed to support crop growth. Because of the ample rainfall at Machu Picchu, it was found that
Human sacrifice and mysticism
Little information describes human sacrifices at Machu Picchu, though many sacrifices were never given a proper burial, and their skeletal remains succumbed to the elements.[38] However, there is evidence that retainers were sacrificed to accompany a deceased noble in the afterlife.[38]: 107, 119 Animal, liquid and dirt sacrifices to the gods were more common and were made at the Altar of the Condor. The tradition is upheld by members of the New Age Andean religion.[39]: 263
Encounters with Westerners
Spanish conquest
In the late 16th century, Spaniards who had recently gained control of the area documented that indigenous individuals mentioned returning to "Huayna Picchu", the name that is believed to be originally given to the site by locals.
Over the centuries, the surrounding jungle overgrew the site, and few outside the immediate area knew of its existence. The site may have been re-discovered and plundered in 1867 by a German businessman, Augusto Berns.[41] Some evidence indicates that the German engineer J. M. von Hassel arrived earlier. Maps show references to Machu Picchu as early as 1874.[42] A 1904 atlas designated the site as Huayna Picchu.[14]
Search for the Neo-Inca capital
In 1911 American historian and explorer
Though Bingham was not the first to visit the ruins, he was considered the scientific discoverer who brought Machu Picchu to international attention. Bingham organized another expedition in 1912 to undertake major clearing and excavation.[26]: xxx–xxxi [non-primary source needed]
First American expedition
Bingham was a lecturer at Yale University, although not a trained archaeologist. In 1909, returning from the Pan-American Scientific Congress in Santiago, he travelled through Peru and was invited to explore the Inca ruins at Choqquequirau in the Apurímac Valley. He organized the 1911 Yale Peruvian Expedition in part to search for the Inca capital, which was thought to be the city of Vitcos. He consulted Carlos Romero, one of the chief historians in Lima who showed him helpful references and Father Antonio de la Calancha's Chronicle of the Augustinians. In particular, Ramos thought Vitcos was "near a great white rock over a spring of fresh water." Back in Cusco again, Bingham asked planters about the places mentioned by Calancha, particularly along the Urubamba River. According to Bingham, "one old prospector said there were interesting ruins at Machu Picchu," though his statements "were given no importance by the leading citizens." Only later did Bingham learn that Charles Wiener also heard of the ruins at Huayna Picchu and Machu Picchu, but was unable to reach them.[26][non-primary source needed]
Armed with this information the expedition went down the Urubamba River. En route, Bingham asked local people to show them Inca ruins, especially any place described as having a white rock over a spring.[26]: 137 [non-primary source needed]
At Mandor Pampa, Bingham asked farmer and innkeeper Melchor Arteaga if he knew of any nearby ruins. Arteaga said he knew of excellent ruins on the top of Huayna Picchu.[46] The next day, 24 July, Arteaga led Bingham and Sergeant Carrasco across the river on a log bridge and up the Machu Picchu site. At the top of the mountain, they came across a small hut occupied by a couple of Quechua, Richard and Alvarez, who were farming some of the original Machu Picchu agricultural terraces that they had cleared four years earlier. Alvarez's 11-year-old son, Pablito, led Bingham along the ridge to the main ruins.[47]
The ruins were mostly covered with vegetation except for the cleared agricultural terraces and clearings used by the farmers as vegetable gardens. Because of the vegetation, Bingham was not able to observe the full extent of the site. He took preliminary notes, measurements, and photographs, noting the fine quality of Inca stonework of several principal buildings. Bingham was unclear about the original purpose of the ruins, but concluded there was no indication that it matched the description of Vitcos.[26]: 141, 186–187 [non-primary source needed]
The expedition continued down the Urubamba and up the Vilcabamba Rivers examining all the ruins they could find. Guided by locals, Bingham rediscovered and correctly identified the site of the old Inca capital, Vitcos (then called Rosaspata), and the nearby temple of
Bingham returned to Machu Picchu in 1912 under the sponsorship of Yale University and National Geographic and with the full support of Peruvian President Leguia. The expedition undertook a four-month clearing of the site with local labor, which was expedited with the support of the Prefect of Cusco. Excavation started in 1912 with further excavation undertaken in 1914 and 1915. Bingham focused on Machu Picchu because of its fine Inca stonework and well-preserved nature, which had lain undisturbed since the site was abandoned. None of Bingham's several hypotheses explaining the site held up. During his studies, he carried various artifacts back to Yale. One prominent artifact was a set of 15th-century, ceremonial Incan knives made from bismuth bronze; they are the earliest known artifact containing this alloy.[50][51]
Although local institutions initially welcomed the exploration, they soon accused Bingham of legal and cultural malpractice.[52] Rumors arose that the team was stealing artifacts and smuggling them out of Peru through Bolivia. (In fact, Bingham removed many artifacts, but openly and legally; they were deposited in the Yale University Museum. Bingham was abiding by the 1852 Civil Code of Peru; the code stated that "archaeological finds generally belonged to the discoverer, except when they had been discovered on private land." (Batievsky 100)[53]) Local press perpetuated the accusations, claiming that the excavation harmed the site and deprived local archaeologists of knowledge about their own history.[52] Landowners began to demand rent from the excavators.[52] By the time Bingham and his team left Machu Picchu, locals had formed coalitions to defend their ownership of Machu Picchu and its cultural remains, while Bingham claimed the artifacts ought to be studied by experts in American institutions.[52]
Current state
Preservation
In 1981, Peru declared an area of 325.92 square kilometers (125.84 sq mi) surrounding Machu Picchu a "historic sanctuary".
Beyond its historical significance, Machu Picchu houses a diverse range of species. Among them are the Andean fox, puma, vizcacha, spectacled bear, and white-tailed deer. The sanctuary is also habitat for more than 420 bird species, notably the cock-of-the-rock and the Andean condor. The surrounding environment features a variety of tree species such as alder, white cedar, husk, and laurel.[56]
In 1983, UNESCO designated Machu Picchu a World Heritage Site, describing it as "an absolute masterpiece of architecture and a unique testimony to the Inca civilization".[57]
The modern town of Machu Picchu
Along the Urubamba river, below the ruins, surrounding the train line "street", is the town of Machu Picchu, also known as Aguas Calientes (hot springs), with a post office, a train station, many inexpensive and some expensive hotels, and other services for the many tourists. The station, called Puente Ruinas (the bridge to the ruins) is the end of the line for the tren de turismo, the tourist train, which arrives every morning from Cusco and returns every afternoon. There is a luxury hotel on the mountain, near the ruins.[58]
Machu Picchu is
Tourist activity
Machu Picchu is both a cultural and natural
During the 1980s, a large rock from Machu Picchu's central plaza was moved to a different location to create a helicopter landing zone. In the 1990s, the government prohibited helicopter landings. In 2006, a Cusco-based company, Helicusco, sought approval for tourist flights over Machu Picchu. The resulting license was soon rescinded.[70]
Tourist deaths have been linked to altitude sickness, floods and hiking accidents.[71][72][73][74] UNESCO received criticism for allowing tourists at the location given high risks of landslides, earthquakes and injury due to decaying structures.[75]
In 2014, nude tourism was a trend at Machu Picchu and Peru's Ministry of Culture denounced the activity. Cusco's Regional Director of Culture increased surveillance to end the practice.[76]
From 1994 to 2019, the Chief of the National Archaeological Park of Machu Picchu was Fernando Astete, a Peruvian anthropologist and archaeologist, who worked for more than 30 years on the preservation, conservation and research of the site.[77] As a result of his research as director of the Park, the construction processes and functions of the sanctuary were acknowledged by the scientific community and a better understanding of the Inca landscape was given to the general public, who increasingly started to implement more sustainable tourism in the area, as a sign of respect for the site.[77]
During the
Geography
Machu Picchu lies in the
Machu Picchu features wet humid summers and dry frosty winters, with the majority of the
Machu Picchu is situated above a bow of the Urubamba River, which surrounds the site on three sides, where cliffs drop vertically for 450 meters (1,480 ft) to the river at their base. The area is subject to morning mists rising from the river.[47] The location of the city was a military secret, and its deep precipices and steep mountains provided natural defenses. The Inca Bridge, an Inca grass rope bridge, across the Urubamba River in the Pongo de Mainique, provided a secret entrance for the Inca army. Another Inca bridge was built to the west of Machu Picchu, the tree-trunk bridge, at a location where a gap occurs in the cliff that measures 6 meters (20 ft).
The city sits in a saddle between the two mountains Machu Picchu and Huayna Picchu,
Machu Picchu and other sites in the area are built over
Climate
Climate data for Machu Picchu (elevation 2,399 m (7,871 ft), 1991–2020 normals) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 20.6 (69.1) |
20.6 (69.1) |
21.0 (69.8) |
21.5 (70.7) |
21.9 (71.4) |
22.0 (71.6) |
22.1 (71.8) |
23.1 (73.6) |
23.4 (74.1) |
22.8 (73.0) |
22.8 (73.0) |
21.2 (70.2) |
21.9 (71.5) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 11.8 (53.2) |
11.9 (53.4) |
11.9 (53.4) |
11.7 (53.1) |
10.8 (51.4) |
10.0 (50.0) |
9.4 (48.9) |
10.0 (50.0) |
11.1 (52.0) |
11.5 (52.7) |
12.0 (53.6) |
12.0 (53.6) |
11.2 (52.1) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 340.7 (13.41) |
324.5 (12.78) |
340.6 (13.41) |
184.1 (7.25) |
73.4 (2.89) |
50.8 (2.00) |
54.2 (2.13) |
60.6 (2.39) |
76.2 (3.00) |
163.0 (6.42) |
172.5 (6.79) |
275.4 (10.84) |
2,116 (83.31) |
Source: National Meteorology and Hydrology Service of Peru[86] |
Site
Layout
The site is roughly divided into an urban sector and an agricultural sector, and into an upper town and a lower town. The temples are in the upper town, the warehouses in the lower.[87]
The architecture is adapted to the mountains. Approximately 200 buildings are arranged on wide parallel terraces around an east–west central square. The various compounds, called kanchas, are long and narrow in order to exploit the terrain. Sophisticated channeling systems provided irrigation for the fields. Stone stairways set in the walls allowed access to the different levels across the site. The eastern section of the city was probably residential. The western, separated by the square, was for religious and ceremonial purposes. This section contains the Torreón, the massive tower which may have been used as an observatory.[88]
Located in the first zone are the primary archaeological treasures: the Intihuatana, the Temple of the Sun and the Temple of the Three Windows.
The Popular District, or Residential District, is the place where the lower-class people lived. It includes storage buildings and simple houses.
The royalty area, a sector for the
The Guardhouse is a three-sided building, with one of its long sides opening onto the Terrace of the Ceremonial Rock. The three-sided style of Inca architecture is known as the wayrona style.[89]
In 2005 and 2009, the
Sites of interest
Temple of the Sun or Torreón
Intihuatana stone
The Intihuatana stone is one of many
Inti Mach'ay and the Royal Feast of the Sun
Inti Mach'ay is a special cave used to observe the Royal Feast of the Sun. This festival was celebrated during the Incan month of Qhapaq Raymi. It began earlier in the month and concluded on the December solstice. On this day, noble boys were initiated into manhood by an ear-piercing ritual as they stood inside the cave and watched the sunrise.[96]
Architecturally, Inti Mach'ay is often considered to be the most significant structure at Machu Picchu. Its entrances, walls, steps, and windows are some of the finest masonry in the Incan Empire. The cave also includes a tunnel-like window unique among Incan structures, which was constructed to allow sunlight into the cave only during several days around the December solstice. For this reason, the cave was inaccessible for much of the year.[97] Inti Mach'ay is located on the eastern side of Machu Picchu, just north of the "Condor Stone." Many of the caves surrounding this area were prehistorically used as tombs, yet there is no evidence that Mach'ay was a burial ground.[98]
Dispute over cultural artifacts
In 1912, 1914 and 1915, Bingham removed thousands of artifacts from Machu Picchu—ceramic vessels, silver statues, jewelry, and human bones—and took them to Yale University for further study, supposedly for 18 months. Yale instead kept the artifacts until 2012, arguing that Peru lacked the infrastructure and systems to care for them. Eliane Karp, an anthropologist and wife of former Peruvian President Alejandro Toledo, accused Yale of profiting from Peru's cultural heritage. Many of the articles were exhibited at Yale's Peabody Museum.
In 2006, Yale returned some pieces but kept the rest, claiming this was supported by federal case law of Peruvian antiquities.[99] In 2007, Peru and Yale had agreed on a joint traveling exhibition and construction of a new museum and research center in Cusco advised by Yale. Yale acknowledged Peru's title to all the objects, but would share rights with Peru in the research collection, part of which would remain at Yale for continuing study.[100] In November 2010, Yale agreed to return the disputed artifacts.[101] The third and final batch of artifacts was delivered in November 2012.[102] The artifacts are permanently exhibited at the Museo Machu Picchu, La Casa Concha ("The Shell House"), close to Cusco's colonial center. Owned by the National University of San Antonio Abad del Cusco, La Casa Concha also features a study area for local and foreign students.
Construction
The central buildings use the classical Inca architectural style of polished dry-stone walls of regular shape. The Incas were masters of this technique, called ashlar, in which blocks of stone are cut to fit together tightly without mortar.
The site itself may have been intentionally built on fault lines to afford better drainage and a ready supply of fractured stone. "Machu Picchu clearly shows us that the Incan civilization was an empire of fractured rocks".[103]
The section of the mountain where Machu Picchu was built provided various challenges that the Incas solved with local materials. One issue was the seismic activity due to two fault lines. It made mortar and similar building methods nearly useless. Instead, the Inca mined stones from some quarries at the site,[104] including one recently discovered using remote sensing techniques, which was probably located in the catchment area between the Hurin and Hanan before it was covered over to create the current Plaza Principal.[105] Once mined the granite stones, the Inca lined them up and shaped them to fit together perfectly, stabilizing the structures. Inca walls have many stabilizing features: doors and windows are trapezoidal, narrowing from bottom to top; corners usually are rounded; inside corners often incline slightly into the rooms, and outside corners were often tied together by L-shaped blocks; walls are offset slightly from row to row rather than rising straight from bottom to top.
Heavy rainfall required terraces and stone chips to drain rain water and prevent mudslides, landslides, erosion, and flooding. Terraces were layered with stone chips, sand, dirt, and topsoil, to absorb water and prevent it from running down the mountain. Similar layering protected the large city center from flooding.[106] Multiple canals and reserves throughout the city provided water that could be supplied to the terraces for irrigation and to prevent erosion and flooding.
The Incas never used wheels in a practical way, although their use in toys shows that they knew the principle. The use of wheels in engineering may have been limited due to the lack of strong draft animals, combined with steep terrain and dense vegetation.[107] The approach to moving and placing the enormous stones remains uncertain, probably involving hundreds of men to push the stones up inclines. A few stones have knobs that could have been used to lever them into position; the knobs were generally sanded away, with a few overlooked.
Roads, entry and transportation
The Inca road system included a route to the Machu Picchu region. The people of Machu Picchu were connected to long-distance trade, as shown by non-local artifacts found at the site. For example, Bingham found unmodified obsidian nodules at the entrance gateway. In the 1970s, Burger and Asaro determined that these obsidian samples were from the Titicaca or Chivay obsidian source, and that the samples from Machu Picchu showed long-distance transport of this obsidian type in pre-Hispanic Peru.[28][page needed]
Thousands of tourists walk the Inca Trail to visit Machu Picchu each year.[108] They congregate at Cusco before starting on the one-, two-, four- or five-day journey on foot from kilometer 82 (or 77 or 85, four- or five-day trip) or kilometer 104 (one- or two-day trip) near the town of Ollantaytambo in the Urubamba valley, walking up through the Andes to the isolated city.
The closest access point to Machu Picchu is the village of Machupicchu, also known as Aguas Calientes.
Entrance restrictions
In July 2011, the Dirección Regional de Cultura Cusco (DRC) introduced new entrance rules to the citadel of Machu Picchu.[109] The tougher entrance rules attempted to reduce the effects of tourism. Entrance was limited to 2,500 visitors per day, and entrance to Huayna Picchu (within the citadel) was further restricted to 400 visitors per day. In 2018, additional restrictions were placed on entrance. Three entrance phases will be implemented, increased from two phases previously, to further help the flow of traffic and reduce degradation of the site due to tourism.[110]
In May 2012, a team of UNESCO conservation experts called upon Peruvian authorities to take "emergency measures" to further stabilize the site's buffer zone and protect it from damage, particularly in the nearby town of Aguas Calientes, which had grown rapidly.[111]
January 2010 evacuation
In January 2010, heavy rain caused flooding that buried or washed away roads and railways to Machu Picchu, trapping more than 2,000 locals and more than 2,000 tourists, who were later airlifted out of the area. Machu Picchu was temporarily closed,[112] reopening on 1 April 2010.[113]
Closure in 2023
In January 2023, the site was indefinitely shut down due to the
In media
Motion pictures
The Paramount Pictures film Secret of the Incas (1954), with Charlton Heston and Yma Sumac, was filmed on location at Cusco and Machu Picchu, the first time that a major Hollywood studio filmed on site. Five hundred indigenous people were hired as extras in the film.[114]
The opening sequence of the film Aguirre, the Wrath of God (1972) was shot in the Machu Picchu area and on the stone stairway of Huayna Picchu.[115]
Machu Picchu was featured prominently in the film
The
Multimedia artist Kimsooja used footage shot near Machu Picchu in the first episode of her film series Thread Routes, shot in 2010.[118]
On their 7th release, "Transformers: Rise of the Beasts" (2023) brought the Autobots to Machu Picchu and more of Cusco's famous sites.[119]
Music
The song "Kilimanjaro", from the Indian Tamil language film Enthiran (2010), was filmed in Machu Picchu.[120] The sanction for filming was granted only after direct intervention from the Indian government.[121][122]
Gallery
-
General view.
-
Sunrise from Inti Punku, in the final stretch of the Inca Trail.
-
Detail of a trapezoidal window.
-
Colcas on the agricultural sector.
-
The Temple of the Condor.
-
Terraces.
-
Detail of the wall's masonry.
-
Llamas at Machu Picchu.
-
Residential area.
-
Cliff.
See also
- Iperú, tourist information and assistance
- Lares trek, an alternative route to that of the Inca Trail
- List of archaeological sites in Peru
- List of archaeoastronomical sites by country
- Paleohydrology
- Putucusi, neighboring mountain
- Religion in the Inca Empire
- Salcantay Trek – alternative trek to Machu Picchu
- The Chilean Inca Trail
- Tourism in Peru
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{{cite web}}
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Bibliography
- Bingham, Hiram (2010). Lost City of the Incas. Orion. ISBN 978-0-297-86533-9.
- Burger, Richard; Salazar, Lucy, eds. (2004). Machu Picchu: Unveiling the Mystery of the Incas. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. OCLC 52806202.
- Carlotto, V.; Cardenas, J.; Fidel, L. (2009). "La Geologia, evolucion geomorfologica y geodinamica externa de la ciudad Inca de Machupicchu, Cusco-Perù". Revista de la Asociación Geológica Argentina. 65 (4): 725–747.
- Davey, Peter (October 2001). "Outrage: Rebuilding Machu Picchu, Peru". The Architectural Review. Retrieved 7 June 2016.
- OCLC 37552622.
- Dearborn, David S. P.; Schreiber, Katharina J.; White, Raymond E. (1 January 1987). "Intimachay: A December Solstice Observatory at Machu Picchu, Peru". American Antiquity. 52 (2): 346–352. S2CID 164181573.
- Doig, Federico Kauffmann (2005). Machu Picchu: tesoro inca. ICPNA, Instituto Cultural Peruano Norteamericano.
- Herzog, Werner; Cronin, Paul (2002). Herzog on Herzog. MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-571-20708-4.
- Longhena, Maria (2007). The Incas and Other Ancient Andean Civilizations. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 978-1-4351-0003-9.
- Nava, Pedro Sueldo (1976). A Walking Tour of Machupicchu. Editoral Cumbre. OCLC 2723003.
- Wright, Kenneth R.; Valencia Zegarra, Alfredo (2000). Machu Picchu: A Civil Engineering Marvel. Reston, Virginia: ASCE Press (OCLC 43526790.
- Wright, Kenneth R.; Valencia Zegarra, Alfredo & Crowley, Christopher M. (May 2000b). "Completion Report to Instituto Nacional de Cultura on Archaeological Exploration of the Inca Trail on the East Flank of Machu Picchu and on Palynology of Terraces Part 2" (PDF). Retrieved 14 January 2010.[permanent dead link]
- Wright, Ruth; Valencia Zegarra, Alfredo (2004) [2001]. The Machu Picchu Guidebook: A self-guided tour. Big Earth Publishing. OCLC 53330849.
Further reading
- Christopher Heaney (2011). Cradle of Gold: The Story of Hiram Bingham, a Real-life Indiana Jones and the Search for Machu Picchu. MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-230-11204-9. Retrieved 8 August 2023.
- Bingham, Hiram (1911). Bingham's Journal 1911 Expedition. Collection MS 664. Series III, Box 18, Folder 1 y 2. Yale University Library.
- Bingham, Hiram (1922). Inca Land: Explorations in the Highlands of Peru (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
- Bingham, Alfred M. (1989). Portrait of an Explorer: Hiram Bingham, Discoverer of Machu Picchu. Ames: Iowa State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8138-0136-0.
- Cosio, José Gabriel (1912). "An Excursion to Machupicchu, Ancient City" (PDF). Revista Universitaria de la Unsaac. 1 (2). Cusco: Universidad Nacional San Antonio Abad del Cusco: 2–22.
- Frost, Peter; Blanco, Daniel; Rodríguez, Abel & Walker, Barry (1995). Machu Picchu Historical Sanctuary. Lima: Nueves Imágines. OCLC 253680819.
- Kops, Deborah (2008). Machu Picchu. Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 978-0-8225-7584-9.
- MacQuarrie, Kim (2007). The Last Days of the Incas. New York: Simon & Schuster. OCLC 77767591.
- Magli, Giulio (2009). "At the other end of the sun's path: A new interpretation of Machu Picchu". Nexus Network Journal – Architecture and Mathematics. 12 (2010): 321–341. S2CID 118625418.
- Masini, Nicola; G. Romano; D. Sieczkowska (2023). "Non invasive subsurface imaging to investigate the site evolution of Machu Picchu". Scientific Reports. 13 (1): 16035. PMID 37749316.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - Reinhard, Johan (2007). Machu Picchu: Exploring an Ancient Sacred Center. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, UCLA. OCLC 141852845.
- Rice, Mark (2018). Making Machu Picchu: The Politics of Tourism in Twentieth-Century Peru (U of North Carolina Press) online review
- Richardson, Don (1981). Eternity in their Hearts. Ventura, CA: Regal Books. pp. 34–35. OCLC 491826338.
- OCLC 474116190.
- es:Daniel Eisenberg (1989). "Machu Picchu and Cusco", Journal of Hispanic Philology, vol. 13, pp. 97–101.
- Wright, Kenneth R.; Valencia Zegarra, Alfredo & Crowley, Christopher M. (May 2000a). "Completion Report to Instituto Nacional de Cultura on Archaeological Exploration of the Inca Trail on the East Flank of Machu Picchu and on Palynology of Terraces Part 1" (PDF). Retrieved 14 January 2010.[permanent dead link]
- Wright, Kenneth R.; Valencia Zegarra, Alfredo & Crowley, Christopher M. (May 2000c). "Completion Report to Instituto Nacional de Cultura on Archaeological Exploration of the Inca Trail on the East Flank of Machu Picchu and on Palynology of Terraces Part 3" (PDF). Retrieved 14 January 2010.[permanent dead link]
- Ziółkowski, Mariusz; Masini, Nicola; Bastante, Jose (2022). Machu Picchu in Context. Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Study of Human Past. Springer Cham. S2CID 253504097.
External links
- Official website of the Ministry of Culture of Peru
- UNESCO – Machu Picchu (World Heritage)
- Machu Picchu Multimedia Resources
- Stories on Machu Picchu by Fernando Astete, former Chief of National Archaeological Park of Machupicchu
- Plants and animals in Machu Picchu
Images